Numerical evaluation of failure mechanisms on composite specimens subjected to impact loading

Composite panels are in common use, especially in aeronautic and aerospace structures due to their high strength/weight and stiffness/weight ratio. The out-of-plane impact loading is considered potentially dangerous mainly because the damage may be left undetected and because the loading itself acts in the through-the-thickness direction of the laminated composite panel. This direction is the weakest in the composite since no fibres are present in that direction. The impact loading can lead to damage involving three modes of failure: matrix cracking, delamination and eventually fibre breakage for higher impact energies. Even when no visible impact damage is observed at the surface on the point of impact, matrix cracking and delamination can occur, and the residual strength of the composite is considerably reduced. The objective of this study is to determine the mechanisms of the damage growth of impacted composite laminates when subjected to impact loading. For this purpose a series of impact tests were carried out on composite laminates made of carbon fibre reinforced epoxy resin matrix. An instrumented drop-weight-testing was used together with a C-scan ultrasonic device for the damage identification. Two stacking sequences of two different epoxy resins and carbon fibres, representative of four different elastic behaviours with a different number of interfaces were used. A numerical evaluation of these specimens was also carried out, using static analysis only. Results showed that the delaminated area due to impact loading depends on the number of interfaces between plies. Two failure mechanisms due to impact were identified, which are influenced by the stacking sequence and by the thickness of the panels.     

碳纤维增强环氧树脂基复合材料轴管的低速冲击失效机制及剩余压缩性能

采用落锤冲击试验模拟低速冲击过程,对碳纤维增强环氧树脂基复合材料传动轴的轴管在不同能级冲击下的损伤行为以及冲击后的剩余压缩性能进行了研究;通过ABQUAS有限元分析软件和X射线断层扫描技术(CT）相结合的方法观察了复合材料轴管在受到低速冲击时的损伤形式,研究其内部损伤规律。结果表明,复合材料轴管的抗冲击形变能力随着冲击能量的增加先增强后减弱,在冲击能量为10 ~20 J之间出现最大值。CT无损检测结果显示复合材料轴管的失效形式包括分层损伤、树脂开裂和纤维破裂(断裂)。在低能量冲击时,复合材料轴管主要产生分层损伤和树脂的开裂,而纤维断裂损伤只出现在冲击位置,且随着冲击能量的增加纤维断裂现象愈加显著。有限元仿真结果显示复合材料轴管中的碳纤维在拉伸方向的失效明显小于压缩失效,压缩失效沿纤维排布方向扩散,拉伸失效沿轴向和横向呈十字扩散,轴向失效的程度大于横向失效的程度;而树脂的压缩失效沿轴向从冲击位置向横向扩散,扩散形状近似圆形,越靠近圆心失效越明显,拉伸失效范围呈十字,整体失效沿十字边缘扩散。      

Core crush criterion to determine the strength of sandwich composite structures subjected to compression after impact

In this study a core crush criterion is proposed to determine the residual strength of impacted sandwich structures. The core of the sandwich is made of a Nomex Honeycomb core and the faces are laminated and remain thin. The mechanism of failure of this kind of structure under post-impact compressive loading is due to interaction between three mechanical behaviors: geometrical nonlinearity due to the skin’s neutral line off-set in the dent area, nonlinear response of the core and damages to the skins. For the type of sandwich analysed in this study, initially the core crushes at the apex of the damage. Using a finite element discrete modelling of the core previously proposed by the authors, the load corresponding to the crushing of the first cell can be computed and it gives the value of the residual strength for our criterion. Some geometric and material hypotheses are assumed in the damaged area mainly based on non-destructive inspection (NDI). The criterion is then applied to tests modelled by Lacy and Hwang [Lacy TE, Hwang Y. Numerical modelling of impact-damaged sandwich composites subjected to compression after impact loading. Compos Struct 2003;61:115–128]. It is shown that the criterion allows a good prediction of the tests except in the case of very small dents. Several sensitivity studies on the assumptions were made and it is shown that using this approach, the criterion is robust.     

Failure modes of unidirectional carbon/epoxy composite compression specimens

The failure modes of unidirectional Hercules AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite compression specimens, tested using a standard IITRI compression test fixture, were analysed. Three distinct failure modes were identified, along with several minor variations. Observations suggest that the occurrence of a particular failure mode is highly dependent on the type of tabbing material used, the tab geometry, and subtle changes in the compression fixture gripping conditions.     

Failure analysis of CFRP laminates subjected to compression after impact: FE simulation using discrete interface elements

This paper presents a model for the numerical simulation of impact damage, permanent indentation and compression after impact (CAI) in CFRP laminates. The same model is used for the formation of damage developing during both low-velocity/low-energy impact tests and CAI tests. The different impact and CAI elementary damage types are taken into account, i.e. matrix cracking, fiber failure and interface delamination. Experimental tests and model results are compared, and this comparison is used to highlight the laminate failure scenario during residual compression tests. Finally, the impact energy effect on the residual strength is evaluated and compared to experimental results.     

缝合复合材料层板低速冲击及冲击后压缩实验研究

通过对缝合复合材料层板进行低速冲击和冲击后压缩实验, 研究了不同类型的缝合复合材料层板的冲击损伤特性及冲击后压缩的剩余强度。实验研究表明: 基体损伤和分层是缝合层板与未缝合层板低速冲击的主要损伤模式, 缝合层板具有更好的抗冲击性能, 更高的冲击后压缩强度。缝合密度越大的层板其抗冲击性能越好, 冲击后压缩强度越高。缝合方向为0°的缝合层板较缝合方向为90°的缝合层板具有更好的抗冲击性能和更高的冲击后压缩强度。增加0°方向铺层, 减少45°、-45°方向铺层, 可以提高缝合层板的抗冲击性能和冲击后压缩强度。     

Simulation of drop-weight impact and compression after impact tests on composite laminates

This paper presents finite element simulations of two standardized and sequential tests performed in polymer–matrix composite laminates reinforced by unidirectional fibers: the drop-weight impact test and the compression after impact test. These tests are performed on laboratory coupons, which are monolithic, flat, rectangular composite plates with conventional stacking sequences. The impact and the compression after impact tests are simulated using constitutive material models formulated in the context of continuum damage mechanics. The material models account for both ply failure mechanisms and delamination. Comparisons with experimental data are performed in order to assess the accuracy of the predictions.     

Failure mechanisms of laminated composites subjected to static indentation

Quasi-static indentation tests on composite laminates have been performed. Thermal deply and C-scan techniques are used to observe the internal damage characteristics of laminates induced by static indentation. The results indicate that the dent depth increases slowly and almost linearly as the force is lower than its maximum. The observation shows that the damage induced at this loading stage includes matrix cracking and delamination only. Once the force exceeds the maximum, the dent depth increases sharply while the force remains almost unchanged. Deply test results demonstrate that the transition to rapid increase in dent depth is due to the fiber breakage produced at this loading stage. The results also indicate that the damage resistance of a composite laminate can be characterized by the maximum contact force. On the basis of this principle and test results, it is concluded that the damage resistance of toughened composite is much higher than that of brittle one.     

Behaviour of multiple composite plates subjected to ballistic impact

An experimental and numerical investigation has been carried out to study the behavior of single and multiple laminated panels subjected to ballistic impact. A pressurized air gun is used to shoot the impactor, which can attain sufficient velocity to penetrate all the laminates in a multiple laminated panel. The incidental and residual velocity of the impactor is measured to estimate the energy absorption in the impact process. The commercially available code ABAQUS has been used for the numerical simulation where the impactor has been modeled as a rigid body and the laminates have been modeled with a simple shell element. A user material model based on a continuum damage mechanics concept for failure mechanism of laminated composites has been implemented. Experimental tests showed that the numerical model could satisfactorily predict the energy absorption. Most interestingly, it has clearly demonstrated a feasible phenomenon behind counterintuitive experimental results for the multiple laminated panels.     

低速冲击下复合材料层板压缩许用值

为评估航空结构中常用的T300级和T800级2种碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层压板的冲击后压缩许用值,对2种材料体系下具有不同厚度及铺层的层板进行了低速冲击和冲击后压缩试验;讨论了冲击能量、凹坑深度、损伤面积及冲击后剩余压缩强度等之间的关系,以及厚度、铺层、表面防护等因素对其造成的影响;重点关注了2种材料体系下各组层板的目视勉强可见冲击损伤(BVID)形成条件以及含BVID层板的剩余强度.结果表明:厚度及铺层对层板的凹坑深度-冲击能量关系影响较大,而对冲击后压缩强度-凹坑深度及冲击后压缩破坏应变-凹坑深度关系影响较小,且在相同铺层比例下,BVID对应的冲击能量随厚度近似呈线性增长.X850层板的损伤阻抗性能明显优于CCF300/5228层板的,但二者损伤容限性能相当.加铜网、涂漆等表面处理显著提高了层板的损伤阻抗,但对损伤容限性能影响不大;在损伤不超过BVID时,所有CCF300/5228试件的压缩破坏应变均大于4 000 με,而X850材料体系下压缩破坏应变均在3 000 με之上.     

复合材料T型加筋板筋条冲击损伤及冲击后压缩行为试验

本文研究了复合材料加筋板的筋条冲击损伤及冲击损伤对加筋板轴向压缩（CAI）行为的影响。针对T型单筋加筋板,通过落锤法从面板一侧对筋条进行5种能量水平的低速冲击。试验结果表明：冲击筋条产生的面板凹坑不易观察;当冲击能量低于筋条损伤门槛能量时,加筋板筋条无损伤出现,筋条-面板也不会发生脱粘;一旦冲击能量超过筋条损伤门槛能量,筋条的腹板会在弯曲拉伸应力作用下损伤,同时筋条-面板之间会出现严重脱粘。分别对完好和损伤试验件进行压缩试验,试验结果显示：低于门槛能量的冲击对加筋板的压缩屈曲载荷影响不大,同时只会略微降低失效载荷;而冲击造成筋条损伤后,筋条在压缩过程中会由于损伤扩展出现卸载;卸载后的筋条会对面板失去支撑,使面板的屈曲载荷降低,从而大幅地削弱加筋板的承载能力。     

Failure analysis of fiber-reinforced composite laminates subjected to biaxial loads

A nonlinear constitutive model for a single lamina is proposed for the failure analysis of composite laminates. In the material model, both fiber and matrix are assumed to behave as elastic-plastic and the in-plane shear is assumed to behave nonlinearly with a variable shear parameter. The damage onset for individual lamina is detected by a mixed failure criterion, composed of the Tsai-Wu criterion and the maximum stress criterion. After damage takes place within the lamina, the fiber and in-plane shear are assumed to exhibit brittle behavior, and the matrix is assumed to exhibit degrading behavior. The proposed nonlinear constitutive model is tested against experimental data and good agreement is obtained. Then, numerical analyses are carried out to study the failure behavior of symmetric angle-ply composite laminates and symmetric cross-ply composite laminates subjected to biaxial loads. Finally, the conclusions obtained from the numerical analysis are given.     

Failure prediction of composite T-beams subjected to lateral load on the web

A study of the design and mechanical behaviour of co-cured T-beams subjected to lateral loading on the web is presented. The T-beams were manufactured by press moulding from pre-pregs of uni-directional and fabric glass reinforced high performance epoxy matrix. A special fixture was designed in order to carry out tests where the T-beams were laterally loaded on the web and clamped on the flange. Analytical and numerical studies were performed to predict the failure load to compare with the experimental results. The multilayer anisotropic continuum theory for delamination analysis of curved beams subjected to end moments and forces was used to compute the delamination stresses in the quarter cylindrical beam of the junction between the flange and the web. Finite element analyses of the T-beams were performed using plate/shell elements and two models were used for the joining between web and flange, to compute the planar stresses in the beam. The scatter obtained in the experimental results can be explained by the presence of two failure modes: one due to delamination associated with the through the thickness stresses developed in the curved part of the beam, the other related with failure occurring due to tangential stresses in the most highly stressed plies.     

Buckling analysis of trapezoidal composite sandwich plate subjected to in-plane compression

The results of the stability analysis of simply supported layered isosceles trapezoidal plate subjected to axial in-plane compression are presented. The layup configuration is confined to symmetric laminates. The solution has been obtained by means of the Galerkin orthogonalisation method combined with the proposed method of the coordinate system transformation. The results of the analytical solution are compared with the verifying FEM calculation. The computed results in the form of graphs of the buckling force as a function of material and geometrical parameters of the panel are included.     

Characterization of fracture modes in stitched and unstitched cross-ply laminates subjected to low-velocity impact and compression after impact loading

The insertion of transverse reinforcing threads by stitching is a very promising technique to restrict impact damage growth and to improve post-impact residual strength of laminates. In order to develop general models capable of addressing the issues of impact resistance and damage tolerance of stitched laminates, detailed understanding of the nature and extent of damage, identification of the dominant fracture modes and assessment of the effect of stitches on the damage development are essential. In this study, both instrumented drop-weight tests and compression-after-impact tests were carried out to examine and compare the damage responses of stitched and unstitched graphite/epoxy laminates subjected to low-velocity impact. The progression of damage and its effect on post-impact performance was investigated in detail in two classes of cross ply laminates ([0₃/90₃]_s and [0/90]_3s) by means of an extensive series of damage observations, conducted with various complementary techniques (X-radiography, ultrasonics, optical microscopy, deply). The results of the analyses carried out during the study to characterize the key fracture modes and to clarify their relationship with the structural performance of both stitched and unstitched laminates are reported and discussed in the paper.     

Spectral strip analysis for composite cylinders subjected to lateral impact

An efficient computational method, combining the spectral element and the finite-strip method (spectral-strip) is developed in order to obtain numerical results to time dependent problems of cylindrical composite structures subjected to lateral impact, within moderate CPU times. The finite strip method is applied to cylindrical structures uses global interpolation in the circumferential direction, and spectral emenents in the meridional cross section. A term superposition solution is obtained, where every iteration refines the solution and is independent of former iterations. In this manner, a full three-dimensional solution to the problem of the dynamic response of cross-ply cylindrical composite shells subjected to a lateral impact, is obtained. The stability and the accuracy of the method are examined. The main goal is to predict the damage caused by a high velocity non penetrating impact of microparticles. Two types of shells are studied—thin and thick cross-ply laminates. The effect of curvature on a high velocity impact is studied. Also, the stress field obtained by the finite element code is investigated and damage evaluation is discussed. The present work focuses on moderate and high velocity impacts and therefore the force duration is of the order of the through-the-thickness propagation time, causing the imapct region to be in tension due to the reflected stress wave. The results demonstrate the dilatational compression wave traverses the shell thickness as a result of the impact and the dilatational tension wave reflected from the interior free surface as well as the propagation of shear waves in different directions. Using failure criteria, one can find that the compressive stress wave causes matrix cracking and the tensile stress wave causes both delamination and matrix cracking. It is shown that for a thin cylinder, the impact phenomenon is concentrated near the striking region while for a thick-walled cylinder the results of the impact are visible in points far from the striking point as well. The interference of the stress waves that circumevent the cylinder create other points of local maxima for the equivalent stresses. The code written for the finite element solution embloys the object oriented programming through the C++ language. A special matrix class is developed to perform various linear algebra operations. Dedicated to the memory of Professor Joab J. Blech (1934–1996)     

Dynamic large deflection response of composite laminates subjected to impact

Impact responses of composite laminates with and without initial stresses are investigated using the finite element method. A nine-node isoparametric quadrilateral element based on the Mindlin plate theory and the von Karman large deflection assumptions is developed. An experimentally established contact law which accounts for the permanent indentation is incorporated into the finite element program to evaluate the impact force. In the time integration, the Newmark constant acceleration algorithm is used in conjunction with successive iterations within each time step. Numerical results, including the contact force histories, deflections and strains in the plate, are presented.     

Numerical simulation of ceramic composite armor subjected to ballistic impact

Armor systems made of ceramic and composite materials are widely used in ballistic applications to defeat armor piercing (AP) projectiles. Both the designers and users of body armor face interesting choices – how best to balance the competing requirements posed by weight, thickness and cost of the armor package for a particular threat level. A finite element model with a well developed material model is indispensible in understanding the various nuances of projectile–armor interaction and finding effective ways of developing lightweight solutions. In this research we use the explicit finite element analysis and explain how the models are built and the results verified. The Johnson–Holmquist material model in LS-DYNA is used to model the impact phenomenon in ceramic material. A user defined material model is developed to characterize the ductile backing made of ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) material. An ad hoc design optimization is carried out to design a thin, light and cost-effective armor package. Laboratory testing of the prototype package shows that the finite element predictions of damage are excellent though the back face deformations are under predicted.     

Damage prediction in composite sandwich panels subjected to low-velocity impact

The paper illustrates the application of a finite element tool for simulating the structural and damage response of foam-based sandwich composites subjected to low-velocity impact. Onset and growth of typical damage modes occurring in the composite skins, such as fibre fracture, matrix cracking and delaminations, were simulated by the use of three-dimensional damage models (for intralaminar damage) and interfacial cohesive laws (for interlaminar damage). The nonlinear behaviour of the foam core was simulated by a crushable foam plasticity model. The FE results were compared with experimental data acquired by impact testing on sandwich panels consisting of carbon/epoxy facesheets bonded to a PVC foam. Good agreement was obtained between predictions and experiments in terms of force histories, force–displacement curves and dissipated energy. The proposed model was also capable of simulating correctly nature and size of impact damage, and of capturing the key features of individual delaminations at different depth locations.