Oxygen transfer in membrane bioreactors treating synthetic greywater

Mass transfer coefficients (k_La) were studied in two pilot scale membrane bioreactors (MBR) with different setup configurations treating 200 L/h of synthetic greywater with mixed liquor suspended solids' (MLSS) concentrations ranging from 4.7 to 19.5 g/L. Besides the MLSS concentration, mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS), total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and anionic surfactants of the sludge were measured. Although the pilot plants differed essentially in their configurations and aeration systems, similar α-factors at the same MLSS concentration could be determined. A comparison of the results to the published values of other authors showed that not the MLSS concentration but rather the MLVSS concentration seems to be the decisive parameter which influences the oxygen transfer in activated sludge systems operating at a high sludge retention time (SRT).     

Predicting oxygen transfer of fine bubble diffused aeration systems--model issued from dimensional analysis

The standard oxygenation performances of fine bubble diffused aeration systems in clean water, measured in 12 cylindrical tanks (water depth from 2.4 to 6.1m), were analysed using dimensional analysis. A relationship was established to estimate the scale-up factor for oxygen transfer, the transfer number (N(T)) The transfer number, which is written as a function of the oxygen transfer coefficient (k(L)a(20)), the gas superficial velocity (U(G)), the kinematic viscosity of water (nu) and the acceleration due to gravity (g), has the same physical meaning as the specific oxygen transfer efficiency. N(T) only depends on the geometry of the tank/aeration system [the total surface of the perforated membrane (S(p)), the surface of the tank (S) or its diameter (D), the total surface of the zones covered by the diffusers ("aerated area", S(a)) and the submergence of the diffusers (h)]. This analysis allowed to better describe the mass transfer in cylindrical tanks. Within the range of the parameters considered, the oxygen transfer coefficient (k(L)a(20)) is an increasing linear function of the air flow rate. For a given air flow rate and a given tank surface area, k(L)a(20) decreases with the water depth (submergence of the diffusers). For a given water depth, k(L)a(20) increases with the number of diffusers, and, for an equal number of diffusers, with the total area of the zones covered by the diffusers. The latter result evidences the superiority of the total floor coverage over an arrangement whereby the diffusers are placed on separate grids. The specific standard oxygen transfer efficiency is independent of the air flow rate and the water depth, the drop in the k(L)a(20) being offset by the increase of the saturation concentration. For a given tank area, the impact of the total surface of the perforated membrane (S(p)) and of the aerated area (S(a)) is the same as on the oxygen transfer coefficient.     

Surfactant effects on alpha-factors in aeration systems

Aeration in wastewater treatment processes accounts for the largest fraction of plant energy costs. Aeration systems function by shearing the surface (surface aerators) or releasing bubbles at the bottom of the tank (coarse- or fine-bubble aerators). Surfactant accumulation on gas-liquid interfaces reduces mass transfer rates, and this reduction in general is larger for fine-bubble aerators. This study evaluates mass transfer effects on the characterization and specification of aeration systems in clean and process water conditions. Tests at different interfacial turbulence regimes show higher gas transfer depression for lower turbulence regimes. Contamination effects can be offset at the expense of operating efficiency, which is characteristic of surface aerators and coarse-bubble diffusers. Results describe the variability of alpha-factors measured at small scale, due to uncontrolled energy density. Results are also reported in dimensionless empirical correlations describing mass transfer as a function of physiochemical and geometrical characteristics of the aeration process.     

Fate of hazardous aromatic substances in membrane bioreactors

In this work, the removal of hazardous aromatic compounds was investigated in two types of membrane bioreactors (MBRs), based on cross-flow and semi dead-end filtration systems. BTEX and PAH were efficiently eliminated from wastewater during treatment via a membrane bioreactor (90-99.9%) but non-biotic processes, i.e. volatilisation and sorption, contributed significantly. The semi dead-end MBR showed slightly better removal efficiencies than the cross-flow MBR. However, non-biotic processes were more significant in the first process and, finally, degradation rates were higher in the cross-flow MBR. Higher degradation rates were explained by a higher bio-availability of pollutants. Differences in shear stress imposed in cross-flow and semi dead-end filtration systems radically modify the sludge morphology. High shear stress (cross-flow filtration) generates dispersed bacteria and larger quantities of dissolved and colloidal matter. Sorption of hydrophobic compounds (PAHs) on suspended solid was less marked in disaggregated sludge. The results suggest new strategies for improving micro-pollutant degradation in MBRs.     

Water surface contacting cover system--the basic study for improving the oxygen transfer coefficient and the BOD removal capacity

In order to construct an environmental aeration basin in a sewage treatment plant, the suggested novel aeration basin was examined for the oxygen transfer coefficient by using tap water on a lab-scale and pilot-scale. We called it water surface contacting cover system (WSCCS) that was installed with a cover plate on the wafer surface and a slant plate in aeration basin, compared to a standard aeration basin (SRAS, spiral roll aeration system). Finally, the novel basin could be compared by adopting the slant and cover plates into the actual sewage treatment plant (W x L x D (m)=5.0 x 2.65 x 4.25, treatment capacity: 600 m3/d). As a result, only by adding a slant plate, the oxygen transfer coefficient (K(L)a) increased approximately by 15% more than that with a SRAS basin. And the slope of slant plate was optimized at 10 degrees . Additionally, in the WSCCS, the increasing efficiency of the oxygen transfer coefficient, affected only by the cover, was proved at about 25% on the lab-scale aeration basin and about 20% on the pilot plant. After all, the increasing effect of the oxygen transfer coefficient on WSCCS that was installed with the water contacting cover and the slant plate on standard aeration basin was proved to be above 35%. The distance between the air diffuser and the slant plate was 20-30 cm in the pilot-scale plant. As an effective factor for increasing the oxygen transfer rate, the width/depth ratio of aeration basin was proved to be 2. Through the short-term results of actual sewage treatment plant, it was known that BOD removal efficiency could be improved by about 3% by adopting tile WSCCS not but SRAS.     

The influence of aeration intensity on predation and EPS production in membrane bioreactors

Shear, in the form of vigorous aeration, is used to control fouling in membrane bioreactor (MBR) systems. However, shear also influences the physicochemical and biological properties of MBR biomass. The current study examines the relationship between the aeration intensity and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) production in MBRs. Two identical submerged MBRs were operated in parallel but the aeration rate was three times greater in one of the MBRs. The concentrations of floc-associated and soluble EPS were monitored for the duration of the experiment. Microscopic images and floc-size measurements were also collected regularly. The membrane fouling potential of the biomass was quantified using the flux-step method. Increased aeration did not have a direct effect on soluble or floc-associated EPS production in the microfiltration MBRs. However, aeration intensity had a significant effect on predatory organisms. Large aquatic earthworms, Aeolosoma hemprichi, proliferated under lower shear conditions but were never observed in the high shear reactor. Predation by A. hemprichi resulted in increased floc-associated and soluble EPS production. Thus, the mixing conditions in the low shear MBR indirectly resulted in increased soluble EPS concentrations and higher fouling potential. This research suggests that predation can have a significant impact on the production rates of floc-associated and soluble EPS - key parameters driving membrane fouling in MBRs.     

Model for oxygen transfer in rotating biological contactor

Rotating biological contactor is being widely used for wastewater treatment but there is an apparent lack of knowledge about the rate at which oxygen transfer occurs, in physical and biological system. In this study the transfer of oxygen from air to water by a rotating disc air-liquid contactor in physical system is investigated. The oxygen transfer model suggested by Kim and Molof, Water Sci. Technol. 14 (1982) 569, was modified and the developed model is termed as modified Kim and Molof model. The model was calibrated by using available data in literature and validated by experiments conducted in this study. The effect of significant physical parameters was integrated into a single term and is termed as volume renewal number. The modified Kim and Molof model was compared with the other available models. The coefficient of determination (R(2)) for the modified Kim and Molof model obtained is 0.95 which is much higher than in the other available models. Thereby the model is expected to estimate oxygen transfer more accurately. Further, a simplified linear model between K(L)a and the volume renewal number is proposed. Both modified Kim and Molof and linear model estimate the overall oxygen transfer coefficient (K(L)a) accurately.     

Influence of filtration conditions on membrane fouling and scouring aeration effectiveness in submerged membrane bioreactors to treat municipal wastewater

Membrane fouling and scouring aeration effectiveness were studied using three large pilot-scale submerged membrane bioreactors (MBRs) operated at a series of permeate fluxes, scouring aeration intensities and cyclic aeration frequencies to treat municipal wastewater. The results showed that when operated at the sustainable conditions, the MBRs had a stable reversible fouling resistance. At unsustainable conditions, the reversible fouling resistance increased exponentially as filtration progressed. For each of above two cases, the fouling ratios newly defined by Eqs. (7) and (8) were calculated from the transmembrane pressure increases to compare the relative reversible fouling rates. With the range of sustainable filtration conditions, the fouling ratios at the same reference scouring aeration intensity were found to be proportional to permeate flux. Similarly, the fouling ratios calculated with the same reference permeate flux decreased exponentially with increasing scouring aeration intensity. Moreover, the effects of scouring aeration intensity and permeate flux on the fouling ratios were found to be independent of one another. As a result, an empirical relationship was derived to relate the stable reversible fouling resistance to sustainable permeate fluxes and scouring aeration intensities. Its application was demonstrated by constructing transmembrane pressure contours overlaid with scouring aeration effectiveness contours to aid in the selection of optimal MBR filtration conditions.     

Membrane performance enhancer evaluations on pilot- and full-scale membrane bioreactors

Recently developed polymeric membrane performance enhancer product, MPE50, was tested in various pilot‐ and full‐scale membrane bioreactors (MBRs). The Initial MPE50 dosage was determined by visual jar tests and by using various bench‐top filtration tests. Different amounts of MPE50 were dosed, and the particle size and supernatant clarity of the mixed liquor were monitored visually. Bench‐top filtration tests were also conducted. A 50% higher MPE50 dosage is recommended to be added to the pilot/full‐scale bioreactors because, based on experience, some of the soluble microbial products in the mixed liquor do not completely react with polymer during the relatively short bench‐test mixing time interval. With the addition of 400 mg/L MPE50 to a pilot MBR, the design flow was increased twofold without any significant transmembrane pressure (TMP) increase for 1 day. The control TMP surged within a few hours without MPE50. Long‐term field trials in a full‐scale plant also showed a substantial flux increase. In addition to flux enhancement, MPE50 helped to remove foam from the bioreactors and improved plant aesthetics, safety and general operating performance.     

Membrane properties change in fine-pore aeration diffusers: full-scale variations of transfer efficiency and headloss

Fine-pore diffusers are the most common aeration system in municipal wastewater treatment. Punched polymeric membranes are often used in fine-pore aeration due to their advantageous initial performance. These membranes are subject to fouling and scaling, resulting in increased headloss and reduced oxygen transfer efficiency, both contributing to increased plant energy costs. This paper describes and discusses the change in material properties for polymeric fine-pore diffusers, comparing new and used membranes. Three different diffuser technologies were tested and sample diffusers from two wastewater treatment facilities were analysed. The polymeric membranes analysed in this paper were composed of ethylene-propylene-diene monomer (EPDM), polyurethane, and silicon. Transfer efficiency is usually lower with longer times in operation, as older, dilated orifices produce larger bubbles, which are unfavourable to mass transfer. At the same time, headloss increases with time in operation, since membranes increase in rigidity and hardness, and fouling and scaling phenomena occur at the orifice opening. Change in polymer properties and laboratory test results correlate with the decrease in oxygen transfer efficiency.     

Validation of a supervisory control system for energy savings in membrane bioreactors

The application of fixed operational protocols and settings for membrane bioreactors (MBR) often leads to suboptimal filtration conditions due to the dynamic nature of mixed liquor characteristics. With regard to process optimization and energy savings, the potential benefits of a dynamic control system, enabling to adapt fouling control actions (ACS outputs) in an automated way to the actual mixed liquor fouling propensity, are thus obvious. In this paper, the pilot-scale validation of such an advanced control system (ACS) is elaborated. A specific on-line fouling measurement method, the MBR-VFM (VITO Fouling Measurement), was used for the evaluation of the mixed liquor’s reversible fouling propensity, which was used as a primary ACS input parameter. A first series of tests with a gradual increase in complexity of the selected input and output parameters indicated the functionality of the ACS and demonstrated a substantial reduction of aeration, however sometimes at the expense of a higher fouling rate. The ACS was further fine-tuned and subsequently tested for a longer period under more dynamic operating conditions. A significant correlation was found between the reversible fouling potential measured by the MBR-VFM and the on-line permeability, indicating that the MBR-VFM is a suitable ACS input. Furthermore, an average 22% reduction in aeration flow to the membranes could be achieved without any obvious negative effect on filtration performance. This indicates that this approach is promising to optimize energy consumption in MBRs.     

Enhanced post-denitrification without addition of an external carbon source in membrane bioreactors

This study investigates a post-denitrification process without the addition of an external carbon source combined with an enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) in a membrane bioreactor (MBR). Three trial plants, with two different process configurations, were operated on two different sites, and a variety of accompanying batch tests were conducted. It was shown that even without dosing of an external carbon source, denitrification rates (DNR) much above endogenous rates could be obtained in post-denitrification systems. Furthermore, the anaerobic reactor located ahead of the process had a positive impact on the DNR. Given these surprising results, the project team decided to identify the carbon source used by the microorganisms in the post-denitrification process. Batch tests could demonstrate that lysis products do not play a major role as a C-source for post-denitrification. The following hypothesis was proposed to explain the observations: the glycogen, internally stored by the substrate accumulating bacteria, if anaerobic conditions are followed by aerobic conditions could act as carbon source for denitrification in post-denitrification system. First exploratory batch tests, where the glycogen evolution was monitored, corroborate this assumption.     

Application of the gas tracer method for measuring oxygen transfer rates in subsurface flow constructed wetlands

The oxygen transfer rate (OTR) has a significant impact on the design, optimal operation and modelling of constructed wetlands treating wastewater. Oxygen consumption is very fast in wetlands and the OTR cannot be determined using an oxygen mass balance. This problem is circumvented in this study by applying the gas tracer method. Experiments were conducted in an unplanted gravel bed (dimensions L × W × d 125 × 50 × 35 cm filled with a 30-cm layer of 10-11-mm gravel) and a planted horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland (HSSFCW) (L × W × d 110 × 70 × 38 cm filled with a 30-cm layer of 3.5-mm gravel with Phragmites australis). Tap water saturated with propane as gas tracer (pure or commercial cooking gas, depending on the test) was used. The mass transfer ratio between oxygen and commercial propane gas was quite constant and averaged R = 1.03, which is slightly lower than the value of R = 1.39 that is usually reported for pure propane. The OTR ranged from 0.31 to 5.04 g O₂ m⁻² d⁻¹ in the unplanted gravel bed and from 0.3 to 3.2 g O₂ m⁻² d⁻¹ in the HSSFCW, depending on the hydraulic retention time (HRT). The results of this study suggest that the OTR in HSSFCW is very low for the oxygen demand of standard wastewater and the OTR calculations based on mass balances and theoretical stoichiometric considerations overestimate OTR values by a factor that ranges from 10 to 100. The gas tracer method is a promising tool for determining OTR in constructed wetlands, with commercial gas proving to be a viable low-cost alternative for determining OTR.     

Identification of biofoulant of membrane bioreactors in soluble microbial products

To reveal primary biofoulant in soluble microbial products (SMP) and/or soluble extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), after removal of sludge particles, activated sludge samples were subjected to microfiltration tests in a submerged MBR. Filtration resistance directly correlates with the saccharide concentration. Saccharides in wastewater from several sources contained uronic acids, which increased the filtration resistance. When the microfiltration test liquids contained saccharides over 80 mg l⁻¹, a gelatinous mass remained on the membrane surface after filtration and contained concentrations of saccharides and uronic acids 50 times higher than the original test liquid while only trace amounts of these substances were contained in the filtrate. The gelatinous mass contained high molecular weight substances of 10⁶-10⁸ Da, suggesting the presence of polysaccharides. However, molecules of this size were calculated to be much smaller than the pore size of the membrane. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid decreased filtration resistance, suggesting that polysaccharides containing uronic acid units could undergo intermolecular or intramolecular ionic cross-linking by polyvalent cations and form the gel, thus clogging the membrane pores as an actual biofoulant.     

Recent advances in membrane bioreactors (MBRs): Membrane fouling and membrane material

Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) have been actively employed for municipal and industrial wastewater treatments. So far, membrane fouling and the high cost of membranes are main obstacles for wider application of MBRs. Over the past few years, considerable investigations have been performed to understand MBR fouling in detail and to develop high-flux or low-cost membranes. This review attempted to address the recent and current developments in MBRs on the basis of reported literature in order to provide more detailed information about MBRs. In this paper, the fouling behaviour, fouling factors and fouling control strategies were discussed. Recent developments in membrane materials including low-cost filters, membrane modification and dynamic membranes were also reviewed. Lastly, the future trends in membrane fouling research and membrane material development in the coming years were addressed.     

Mixing characterisation of full-scale membrane bioreactors: CFD modelling with experimental validation

Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs) have been successfully used in aerobic biological wastewater treatment to solve the perennial problem of effective solids-liquid separation. The optimisation of MBRs requires knowledge of the membrane fouling, biokinetics and mixing. However, research has mainly concentrated on the fouling and biokinetics (Ng and Kim, 2007). Current methods of design for a desired flow regime within MBRs are largely based on assumptions (e.g. complete mixing of tanks) and empirical techniques (e.g. specific mixing energy). However, it is difficult to predict how sludge rheology and vessel design in full-scale installations affects hydrodynamics, hence overall performance. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) provides a method for prediction of how vessel features and mixing energy usage affect the hydrodynamics. In this study, a CFD model was developed which accounts for aeration, sludge rheology and geometry (i.e. bioreactor and membrane module). This MBR CFD model was then applied to two full-scale MBRs and was successfully validated against experimental results. The effect of sludge settling and rheology was found to have a minimal impact on the bulk mixing (i.e. the residence time distribution).     

Oxygen transfer and uptake, nutrient removal, and energy footprint of parallel full-scale IFAS and activated sludge processes

Integrated fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) processes are becoming more popular for both secondary and sidestream treatment in wastewater facilities. These processes are a combination of biofilm reactors and activated sludge processes, achieved by introducing and retaining biofilm carrier media in activated sludge reactors. A full-scale train of three IFAS reactors equipped with AnoxKaldnes media and coarse-bubble aeration was tested using off-gas analysis. This was operated independently in parallel to an existing full-scale activated sludge process. Both processes achieved the same percent removal of COD and ammonia, despite the double oxygen demand on the IFAS reactors. In order to prevent kinetic limitations associated with DO diffusional gradients through the IFAS biofilm, this systems was operated at an elevated dissolved oxygen concentration, in line with the manufacturer’s recommendation. Also, to avoid media coalescence on the reactor surface and promote biofilm contact with the substrate, high mixing requirements are specified. Therefore, the air flux in the IFAS reactors was much higher than that of the parallel activated sludge reactors. However, the standardized oxygen transfer efficiency in process water was almost same for both processes. In theory, when the oxygen transfer efficiency is the same, the air used per unit load removed should be the same. However, due to the high DO and mixing requirements, the IFAS reactors were characterized by elevated air flux and air use per unit load treated. This directly reflected in the relative energy footprint for aeration, which in this case was much higher for the IFAS system than activated sludge.     

BSM-MBR: a benchmark simulation model to compare control and operational strategies for membrane bioreactors

A benchmark simulation model for membrane bioreactors (BSM-MBR) was developed to evaluate operational and control strategies in terms of effluent quality and operational costs. The configuration of the existing BSM1 for conventional wastewater treatment plants was adapted using reactor volumes, pumped sludge flows and membrane filtration for the water-sludge separation. The BSM1 performance criteria were extended for an MBR taking into account additional pumping requirements for permeate production and aeration requirements for membrane fouling prevention. To incorporate the effects of elevated sludge concentrations on aeration efficiency and costs a dedicated aeration model was adopted. Steady-state and dynamic simulations revealed BSM-MBR, as expected, to out-perform BSM1 for effluent quality, mainly due to complete retention of solids and improved ammonium removal from extensive aeration combined with higher biomass levels. However, this was at the expense of significantly higher operational costs. A comparison with three large-scale MBRs showed BSM-MBR energy costs to be realistic. The membrane aeration costs for the open loop simulations were rather high, attributed to non-optimization of BSM-MBR. As proof of concept two closed loop simulations were run to demonstrate the usefulness of BSM-MBR for identifying control strategies to lower operational costs without compromising effluent quality.     

Gas transfer from air diffusers

The bubble and surface volumetric mass transfer coefficients for oxygen, k(L)a(b) and k(L)a(s), are separately determined for 179 aeration tests, with diffuser depths ranging from 2.25 to 32 m, using the DeMoyer et al. 12003. Impact of bubble and free surface oxygen transfer on diffused aeration systems. Water Res 37, 1890-1904] mass transfer model. Two empirical characterization equations are developed for k(L)a(b) and k(L)a(s), correlating the coefficients to air flow, Qa, diffuser depth, hd, cross-sectional area, Acs, and volume, V. The characterization equations indicate that the bubble transfer coefficient, k(L)a(b), increases with increasing gas flow rate and depth, and decreases with increasing water volume. For fine bubble diffusers, k(L)a(b) is approximately six times greater than k(L)a(b) for coarse bubble diffusers. The surface transfer coefficient, k(L)A(s), increases with increasing gas flow rate and diffuser depth. The characterization equations make it possible to predict the gas transfer that will occur across bubble interfaces and across the free surface with a bubble plume at depths up to 32 m and with variable air discharge in deep tanks and reservoirs.