Individual characteristics and the intention to continue project escalation

The factors leading to the continuing problems with information system (IS) project failure are of importance to both the research and practitioner communities. The psychological factors that lead project managers to escalate troubled projects are investigated. Theoretical grounding is presented for a research model consisting of Need for Achievement as an antecedent trait for implementation mindset, internal locus of control, preference for consistency, and time urgency, which in turn predict the Intention to Continue a troubled IS project. Using responses from 232 IS project stakeholders, the model is tested using structural equation modeling. The results support Need for Achievement as an antecedent to the other independent variables. Implementation mindset and internal locus of control were found to be significant predictors of the project managers’ intention to continue the IS projects. Based on the findings, suggestions for project re-evaluation milestones (PRMs) are presented.     

Information systems project escalation: a reinterpretation based on options theory

Escalation of commitment is a well-known phenomenon whereby individuals and organizations continue to invest in what appear to be losing courses of action. Traditional theories of escalation implicitly assume the phenomenon is dysfunctional and results from flawed, or irrational, decision-making. Some have argued, however, that the phenomenon results from equivocal information concerning a particular course of action and does not necessarily represent a flawed or irrational decision process. To shed light on this distinction, we examine prior theories of escalation and introduce a reinterpretation of the phenomenon based on options theory.To provide a context for our discussion, we examine information systems (IS) project escalation. While escalation is a general phenomenon, IS investments represent a particularly appealing context of study for several reasons. First, investments in information technology represent a significant and growing fraction of total capital expenditures for most organizations. Second, IS projects exhibit certain characteristics which create ambiguity and may cause them to be especially susceptible to escalation.Our analysis suggests that traditional theories of escalation behavior give an incomplete picture because they do not provide a mechanism for distinguishing warranted from unwarranted escalation. Thus, traditional theories provide little explanation for those situations in which escalation behavior is economically prudent. Failure to consider the value of real options means that the perceived benefits of a project are lower than the actual benefits, meaning that managers are apt to reject or prematurely cancel projects that would in fact be economically beneficial to pursue.This paper applies options theory to show that some projects that might otherwise be viewed as cases of unwarranted escalation, actually involve situations in which escalation is warranted. The options theory perspective offers new theoretical insights that challenge the traditional assumptions and yet complement existing theories regarding escalation behavior.     

Social ties,knowledge sharing and successful collaboration in globally distributed system development projects

Traditionally, the main focus of the information system (IS) literature has been on technical aspects related to system development projects. Furthermore, research in the IS field has mainly focused on co-located project teams. In this respect, social aspects involved in IS projects were neglected or scarcely reported. To fill this gap, this paper studies the contribution of social ties and knowledge sharing to successful collaboration in distributed IS development teams. Data were drawn from two successful globally distributed system development projects at SAP and LeCroy. Data collected were codified using Atlas.ti software. The results suggest that human-related issues, such as rapport and transactive memory, were important for collaborative work in the teams studied. The paper concludes by discussing the implications for theory and suggesting a practical guide to enhance collaborative work in globally distributed teams.     

IS diffusion: A dynamic control and stakeholder perspective

Our research uses a novel perspective of control balancing and stakeholder orientation to explore an information system (IS) phenomenon called enterprise IS diffusion. Employing a case-based, grounded theory approach, we analyze four large-scale IS implementation projects in a Canadian government organization. Our findings offer a synergistic approach to IS diffusion by integrating a dynamic control configuration perspective with stakeholder engagement, stakeholder sensitivity, and the impact of shifting stakeholder orientations on IS diffusion stages.We draw from control, control balancing, and stakeholder theories. Moreover, we refer to the IS implementation and IS diffusion literature to develop our argument. In doing so, this research develops a new and vital construct—stakeholder orientation—for IS implementation projects. We also identify the existence of four distinct stakeholder orientations, a combination of stakeholder engagement with stakeholder sensitivity in large ISD projects: (a) strategic, (b) responsibility, (c) best interest, and (d) economic cost.Through analysis and synthesis, we establish vital relationships among shifting control configurations, stakeholder engagement, stakeholder sensitivity, and IS diffusion stages, where maintaining an optimal stakeholder orientation, facilitated by appropriate control configuration, leads to a successful IS diffusion outcome. Furthermore, we propose an extension to the existing control balancing theory by identifying missing links and trigger factors.     

Escalation and de-escalation of commitment: a commitment transformation analysis of an e-government project

Abstract.  This paper presents a commitment transformation framework for analysing the change in actors' commitment during the transition from escalation to de-escalation in information technology projects. De-escalation is potentially a more important issue than escalation because de-escalation provides remedies for the ills of escalation. Therefore, it is important to understand how stakeholders may bias facts in the direction of previously accepted beliefs and thus prevent an organization from de-escalating. Here, we adopt Lewin's change theory to examine the commitment transformation during the transition from escalation to de-escalation of an e-government project in a local council in the United Kingdom. By conceiving actors' commitment transformation as an 'unfreezing–changing–refreezing' process, researchers may develop a deeper understanding of how actors may give up previous failing course of action and accept an alternative course of action. Practitioners can also utilize the framework in post-mortem analyses of projects which have faced escalation to devise useful de-escalation strategies for future project development. ¹     

Using the analytic hierarchy process and goal programming for information system project selection

One of the basic information system (IS) management activities is the planning of IS projects. Specifically, such planning requires the selection of IS projects and allocation of resources to complete them. This paper presents an improved IS project selection methodology that combines the recently applied IS project selection methodologies of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) within a goal programming (GP) model framework. This new combination of the AHP and GP methodologies helps to overcome the weaknesses observed when either methodology is used separately. The combined AHP and GP methodology is illustrated through an example.     

Pre-project partnering impact on an information system project,project team and project manager

Information system (IS) managers have long recognised the need to use project management approaches in the design and delivery of their system development projects. The result has been the widespread use of project teams headed by a project leader or manager. However, given the fact that there has been a low success rate for IS projects, there is a growing need to seek out new methods and controls for projects. One approach involves the practice of altering the project environment prior to the commencement of project tasks. To determine whether such pre-project activities may be effective, a model is proposed and tested relating the activities to the performance of the project manager and characteristics of an effective project team. Data from a sample of 186 project team members indicate that the pre-project activities lead to more effective teams and managers and eventually to project success. Thus, it is important that organisations begin work on projects at an earlier stage.     

The linkage between reporting quality and performance in IS projects

Recent research has suggested that flawed status reporting is a serious concern in IS projects. However, the linkage between reporting quality and project performance has not been empirically confirmed. Our investigation consisted of two complementary studies, both of which employed previously validated measures of reporting quality and project outcomes. The first considered the perceptions of 210 IS project members of the quality of status reports they submitted to their project managers. The second considered the perceptions of 485 IS project managers of the quality of project reports they received from project members reporting to them. Both showed that the perceived quality of project reporting was less than perfect and was significantly associated with project task and psychological outcomes. Moreover, the second study results suggested that reporting quality was also related to organizational outcomes. We offer recommendations for project managers.     

Toward an ‘IT Conflict-Resistance Theory’: action research during IT pre-implementation

Most empirical research on users’ resistance toward Information Technology (IT) has been conducted after implementation of IT in organisations. Little research has been done on the way individual and group resistance emerges and evolves during prior stages of projects. This focus on pre-implementation phases is important since Information Systems (IS) managers need to anticipate potential conflicts and users’ resistance that can involve project failure. While IS literature has separately developed theories on resistance and conflicts, we conceptualise a whole theoretic-system we call ‘IT Conflict-Resistance Theory’ (IT-CRT). This theory is used as driver for a 2-year action research project conducted at Netia Corporation (a worldwide leader in video and audio broadcasting) during preliminary phases of its Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) implementation project. According to our findings, while conflicts toward IT implementation are often considered to have negative effects and require being actively managed by top managers, the case study delivers an alternative observation: a passive-like attitude of managers during the IT pre-implantation phase does not prevent the resolution of a socio-political oriented conflict between two groups of employees. Our observations illustrate how the avoidance management style invites team members to cope with conflict situations and to express tacit causes of resistance. While most Management Information System methods tend naturally to maximise users’ satisfaction and to reduce potential resistance, the IT-CRT theory developed in this article supports an alternative approach: enhancing resistance in order to anticipate and resolve latent conflicts that are directly or indirectly related to the project. The underlying message of this article for researchers and practitioners is to consider users’ resistance toward IT as a key process embedded into IT choices and IS design.     

The effective promotion of informal control in information systems offshoring projects

As firms increasingly engage in interorganizational information systems (IS) projects, including IS offshoring projects, the challenge for client firms of effectively exercising control across organizational boundaries becomes critical. Although the importance of informal controls (clan and self-control) in this context has been recognized, prior research has focused primarily on formal controls. Consequently, our understanding of the use of clan and self-control in interorganizational IS projects is scarce, and partly inconsistent or contradictory. This study focuses the client’s role in promoting informal controls in interorganizational projects involving distant client–vendor relationships as well as the effectiveness of such controls. We use matched-pair survey data from 86 IS offshoring projects involving client and vendor relationship managers. Our results show an interesting pattern: while clan control is considerably more difficult to promote than self-control in client–vendor project relationships, only clan control has a direct positive impact on project performance. Moreover, formal control modes, national cultural values, and project context factors moderate both the promotion and the effectiveness of informal controls. Our study’s main contributions lie in establishing the relevance of the distinction between informal control given and received, and the importance of the client’s role in promoting informal controls.     

A process model for successful CRM system development

According to industry analysts, almost two-thirds of customer relationship management system development projects fail. Information systems developers and researchers ultimately want to lower these failure rates and support successful development. Most IS research has focused on identifying the factors, or ingredients, correlated with IS development success. We propose a process model as a recipe for successful IS development. Adopting a process theory approach permits examining the sequence of and interplay between specific factors involved in the process. Two case studies - one success, one failure - illustrate how these factors influence customer relationship management (CRM) system development and, ultimately, determine whether a project succeeds or fails.     

Evaluating Information Technology investments: research findings and reappraisal

Abstract. Investments in Information Technology are large and rising, but frequently the subject of disappointed expectations. Some explanations can be found in how they are evaluated and controlled. The paper reports findings from case study work and a 50 organization research project carried out in 1990-91. It first highlights 10 common problem areas that can be addressed. It then focuses on evaluation at the critical feasibility stage of projects and identifies from the research a number of ways in which evaluation practice can be improved. It finds a fall-off in evaluation at subsequent project stages, little attempt to link evaluation across the lifetime of systems, and a fragmented approach to learning from the evaluation experience for future investments. A number of modern alternatives to traditional financially based investment appraisal techniques that dominate the sample are then critically assessed. Tailored to specific organizational circumstances and projects these offer ways forward. Broader thinking, in terms of Information Systems (IS) investments, and a deeper understanding of IS as human activity systems lead on to multiple effectiveness criteria and related measures. However, major improvements may lie in allying more appropriate techniques and measures to developing evaluation as an organizational and social process, with the deeper organizational learning about IT this would entail.     

Determinants of software quality: A survey of information systems project managers

Software quality is important for the success of any information systems (IS). In this research, we find the determinants of software quality. We used five attributes for software quality: system reliability, maintainability, ease of use, usefulness, and relevance. By surveying 112 IS project managers, we collected data about their perceptions on the software quality attributes and their determinants. We arrived at six factors through exploratory factor analysis. We determined the individual factors that impacted the software quality attributes; for example, reliability is associated with responsiveness of IS department; ease of use is influenced by the capabilities of users and attitude of management; and usefulness is impacted by capabilities of IS department and responsiveness of IS department. We show that organizational factors are more important than technical factors in impacting software quality in IS projects. We provide implications of our research to practice and to future research.     

Top management support in multiple-project environments: an in-practice view

Top management support has generally been considered the most critical factor for the success of IS projects. Typically, there have developed implicit or explicit assumptions that top management support has to be constant and consistent during the entire life of an IS implementation project. However, previous research investigating this issue has been based mainly on a ‘single project’ perspective, although contemporary organisational settings have increasingly involved many projects taking place simultaneously. Such multiple-project environments bring into question the feasibility of the previous assumptions and invite revisiting them. This paper aims to do this by examining the materialisation of top management support in a multiple-project environment. To this end, it investigates the interactions between a project to implement an Enterprise Resource Planning system and other projects and programmes in a prominent international organisation. It applies a framework from Actor Network Theory to explore the different aspects of what is involved in being in a multiple-project environment and the nature of the materialisation of top management support. The findings unravel some of the complexity surrounding top management support in this contemporary organisational setting. Some important implications for theory and practice are highlighted and discussed.     

Determination of an implementation order for IS projects

The process of information systems (IS) planning in an organization occurs when there is a set of IS projects that require implementation, generally within certain time frames and budgetary constraints. We propose a method for determining an optimal order of project implementation. The proposed method utilizes the cost-benefit graph, which considers the expected cost and benefit of each of the projects comprising the set, as well as the weight (importance) of the cost and benefit factors to the decision-makers. The method allows us to analyze the sensitivity of a preferred implementation order to changes in cost and benefits, and the importance of these factors.     

Towards an integrated measurement of IS project performance: The project performance scorecard

Determining the contribution of information system (IS) projects is a difficult endeavour. This research presents a framework for evaluating and measuring IS project performance that seek to address this problem while moving away from the reliance on the traditional assessment method (time, cost, specifications). When IS projects fail or succeed is difficult to determine what conditions enabled the outcome. However, if we are to develop a higher level of IS project management competence we need frameworks that can help in assessing IS project outcomes while critically reflecting and learning from IS project management practices. The Project Performance Scorecard (PPS) recommended here is one framework that can help to advance our understanding IS project management and evaluation approaches. This framework integrates concepts from existing models of IS success, the Balanced Scorecard and project management practices. A case study approach is used to illustrate the use of the PPS, and offers insights into how it can be useful in assessing the performance of IS projects.

Team performance and information system implementation

Although the Earned Value Method (EVM), a multi-dimensional project control system, has been widely used since 1960, there has been little research focused specifically on its application in IS implementation. The management of IS projects—including the accurate forecasting of project duration—is complicated by the strong impact of the learning curve on the effectiveness of EVM. This study makes new contributions by advancing formulas for the accurate prediction of project duration, and by developing a decision support model in which the learning curve is fully integrated with EVM, and performance changes due to learning are isolated from other factors affecting project duration. The study makes three contributions to the understanding and use of EVM in IS implementation: (1) It provides an extended version of EVM, (2) it provides an illustration of the application of EVM to a real project situation based on empirical data from an ERP implementation project, and (3) it provides a theoretical basis for empirical studies of IS project control techniques. The decision support model can be used to determine both the learning curve coefficient and the project completion date during the early stages of a project, and it thus offers a significant practical contribution to the management of IS projects.

Blending bureaucratic and collaborative management styles to achieve control ambidexterity in IS projects

Managing information systems (IS) projects requires what we refer to as ‘control ambidexterity’, which is the use of different types of control to meet conflicting demands. This leads to the use of contrasting styles of IS project management and creates tensions in managerial practice, neither of which are well understood. We address this theoretical gap in our understanding based on an exploratory case study of an IS implementation project in the financial services industry. Adopting the lens of management styles as a meta-theoretical perspective, we sought to address two research questions: (1) Which management style(s) do IS project managers draw upon in practice and why? (2) What kinds of tensions result for IS project managers and team members from drawing upon contrasting management styles in combination – and how do IS project managers and team members deal with these tensions? Two contrasting styles of management emerged from our data – bureaucratic and collaborative – that are drawn upon by IS project managers to achieve control ambidexterity. Furthermore, drawing upon these two different styles in combination within the confines of a single project creates tensions. We explore these tensions and present an illustrative example of how IS project managers can deal with these tensions successfully in practice. Specifically, we find that they can be dealt with effectively by a tandem of two project managers who share responsibility for managing the IS project. The findings of this study have important implications for our understanding of control ambidexterity in IS projects.     

Requirements Determination: An Information Systems Specialist Perspective of Process Quality

An empirical study was performed to identify, elucidate and judge factors that affect the quality of the information requirements determination process. These quality factors were determined using a series of nominal group processes involving information systems specialists from various organisations and projects. The results indicate that there exists a set of factors that IS specialists from different organisations and with different systems experience agree upon as being critical to ensuring the quality of the requirements determination process, and that these factors appear to fall into six categories: IS specialist factors, user factors, project team factors, project factors, application factors and environmental/organisational factors.     

Tomorrow’s ethics and today’s response: An investigation into the ways information systems professionals perceive and address emerging ethical issues

This paper explores the question of how foresight and futures research can identify and address ethical issues in the field of Information Systems (IS). Starting from the premise that such IS are part of socio-technical systems, the interaction between technology and human actors raise ethical concerns. Early recognition of these concerns can address ethical issues and improve the use of the technology for a range of social and organisational goals. This paper discusses research conducted in two futures research projects. Both projects investigated emerging information and communication technologies (ICTs) and ethics. The first project established approaches for identifying future technologies and their related ethical concerns. This led to the identification of 11 emerging ICTs and their associated ethical concerns. The second project took these general ethical concerns and focused on their role in IS. Specifically, how IS professionals view future emerging technologies, their associated ethical concerns, and how they think these concerns could be addressed. The key findings are that IS professionals are primarily interested in the job at hand and less so in the ethical concerns that the job might bring; ethics is a concern that is best left for others to deal with. This paper considers the implications of research on ethics in emerging ICTs and draws general conclusions about the relevance of future technologies research in IS.