Empirical investigation of the cognitive mediational paradigm for research on counseling.

Examined relations among counselor and client cognitions, behaviors, and ratings in 29 counseling sessions involving 10 different counselor–client pairs, using stimulated recall and content analysis. Clients were university students; there were 4 counselors with 7–25 yrs' experience and 3 who were counseling interns. The design of the study permitted assessments of the impact of counselor experience (novice vs experienced) and stage of counseling (early, middle, and end) on these variables. Consistency in various parts of the sequential chain of counselor intention (counselor behavior, client perceptions of counselor intention and behavior, client cognitive processing, and client behavior) was lower for interpersonal cognitive than for interpersonal behavioral or intrapersonal cognitive–behavioral links. Consistency across different elements in this chain was observed to account for a significant proportion of the variance in counselor ratings of session effectiveness. Consistent, interpretable patterns observed across counselor intentions, counselor behaviors, and client cognitive processing are discussed. Relatively few effects of stage of counseling or of counselor experience were observed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive mediation in person-centered and rational-emotive therapy.

Relations among counselor and client cognitive and behavioral variables were examined in relation to counselor and client ratings of counseling effectiveness. Unlike previous cognitive-mediational process research on counseling, the conceptual and coding systems used were tailored specifically to two different counseling approaches. Data were obtained from videotapes of 20 counseling sessions and from 40 stimulated recall interviews with both counselors and clients following the counseling sessions. Ten of the sessions followed a rational-emotive format; 10 followed a person-centered format. Both therapeutic conditions consisted of two dyads, each studied experimentally during 5 sessions selected from brief counseling interventions. Results indicated that variables composed from both cognitive and behavioral data predicted participant ratings of counseling effectiveness more than did behavioral variables alone. As in previous research, such relations seemed to depend on a strong negative correlation between counselor transparency (accurate client perceptions of counselor intentions) and participant ratings of counseling effectiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactional structure of interviews conducted by counselors of differing levels of cognitive complexity.

Investigated (a) the probabilistic interactional structure of counseling interviews conducted by 2 groups of counselors of differing levels of cognitive complexity and (b) the consistency of that structure within each group across sequences of 2 interviews. 26 master's level counselor trainees served as Ss. Analysis of the counselor–client interaction patterns between the 2 groups of counselors and across the 2-interview sequences was done using chi-square tests of homogeneity on the sequential verbal response–response transitions of the counseling interviews. The results provide evidence of (a) interactional process differences between counselors of differing levels of cognitive complexity and (b) consistency of interactional response patterns across counseling interviews. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of objective evidence of expertness, nonverbal behavior, and subject sex on client-perceived expertness.

The effects of objective evidence of specialized training, expert nonverbal behaviors, and S sex were studied in a counseling analog setting. 80 undergraduates viewed videotapes of a standardized counseling interaction between a confederate counselor and client. Ss then rated the counselor on a credibility checklist. The results of a 2?×?2?×?2 ANOVA indicate that both objective evidence and nonverbal behaviors significantly affected perceived expertness and that there was no difference in the credibility ratings of the counselor between male and female Ss. There were mixed interactions from the data. Objective evidence and sex did interact significantly, as did objective evidence and nonverbal behavior. The interaction of sex and nonverbal behavior and of sex, objective evidence, and nonverbal behavior did not achieve significance. Implications for practice and research are discussed. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor and helpee perceptions of counselor intentions in relation to outcome in a single counseling session.

Determined whether counseling session could be predicted from different variables (i.e., counselor intentions, helpee's perceptions of counselor's intentions, match between counselor and helpee on intentions), focusing on counselors' and helpees' perceptions. Four 32–43 yr old experienced counselors each saw 4 undergraduate helpees for single 50 min counseling sessions. Counselors and helpees evaluated sessions and then reviewed videotapes during which counselors identified their intentions and helpees rated the helpfulness for each counselor turn. Results indicate that helpees perceived more intentions to support, focus, and clarify and less self-control and resistance than counselors had intended. The highest match between counselors and helpees occurred for getting information, setting limits, and clarifying. Helpees' ratings of helpfulness were highest for counselors' intentions involving needs, resistance, cognitions, and relationships, and lowest for setting limits, getting information, supporting, and focusing. Session outcome was related to different counselor and client perceptions, indicating that participants valued different events within sessions. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cognitive mediational paradigm for research on counseling.

Argues that knowledge about counseling effects will not advance until researchers in counseling conduct investigations that obtain reasonably direct data about specific cognitive operations of counselors and clients in ecologically valid counseling contexts, and relate these cognitive data to interactive behavioral data and counseling outcomes. A theory of cognitive processing in counseling is presented, and a research paradigm is described that considers cognitive processes and attempts to link such processes to the interactive behaviors of counselors and clients and to client learning outcomes. Some of the methodological and conceptual issues related to the operationalization of this cognitive mediational paradigm are considered, and a few illustrative research programs are described. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal communication and counseling outcome.

Nonverbal abilities and behaviors and verbal–nonverbal (VB–NVB) congruence of both counselor and client were studied in relation to judgments by counselors and clients of counseling outcome. 40 university students were clients; 20 counseling or clinical psychology graduate students were counselors. 40 counseling dyads were videotaped during 30-min counseling sessions. NVB abilities were assessed by the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity and an encoding task. Raters judged the presence of 7 NVB behaviors for each 5-sec segment of the videotaped session. Congruence was measured through postsession recall by counselor and client of consistency of feelings expressed through VB and NVB channels of communication. Only VB–NVB congruence was significantly related to outcome, suggesting that the NVB dimension is important primarily as it interacts with the VB dimension. Recommendations are made for use of new methodologies in future research to examine the complex interactions involving NVB communication. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stochastic process analysis of interactive discourse in early counseling interviews.

Examined patterns of interactive discourse to determine how client and counselor establish a working alliance in their early interviews. It was assumed, from a sociolinguistic perspective, that negotiation of the therapeutic relationship is reflected in the flow of talk, particularly during topic transitions. Based on an atheoretical classification of 312 conversational turns from 14 client–counselor dyads (14 undergraduate clients and 11 doctoral-student counselors), a stochastic analysis was conducted to test Markovian assumptions in the interactive patterns of counseling discourse and to identify patterns surrounding topic initiation and adoption. The 2 Markov chain conditions were satisfied, (i.e., the sequences of talk were highly stable [stationarity] and predictable [1st-order dependence]). Topic shifts were likely to be observed frequently and repetitively, suggesting a struggle for control over the interaction. The most predictable sequence, however, was the use of a passing turn to signal the speaker to elaborate on the established topic rather than shift the focus. These sequences were independent of speaker's role, underscoring the reciprocal influence of client and counselor in establishing a common understanding of the problem and defining their relationship. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between counselors' use of intentions and clients' perception of working alliance.

I examined the relation between counselor intention use and client-rated working alliance. Subjects were 42 volunteer clients paired with 42 counselor trainees for 4 counseling sessions. Ratings were obtained for client interpersonal attitudes, client-rated working alliance, and counselor intention use. Counselor intention use accounted for a moderate amount of variance in client-rated working alliance, after the variance in client interpersonal attitudes was removed. Specific counselor intentions (assessment, explore, support) were negatively related to strength of the working alliance. The implications of these findings for theoretical formulations of working alliance formation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client aphasia on client evaluation and counselor behavior.

Examined whether differences exist in counselor behaviors toward and evaluation of an aphasic client in comparison to a nonaphasic client and whether such differences are related to counselor training. 40 counseling students were divided into 2 groups of 20, based on level of counselor training. 10 Ss in each group counseled individually with an aphasic-speaking client for 10 min, and the remaining 10 in each group counseled with the same client as a nonaphasic speaker. Counselor behaviors and evaluations of the confederate client were compared. Results demonstrate that irrespective of training, client aphasic speech significantly affected counselor behavior and evaluation of the client. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex of client and sex and experience level of counselor.

Examined how sex of client and sex and experience level of the counselor affected behaviors in counseling. 12 male and 12 female counselors, half inexperienced and half experienced, each recorded the 2nd counseling session with 1 male and 1 female client. Satisfaction items, frequency counts of counselor and client verbal behavior, activity levels, and judges' ratings were obtained for each session. Results indicate that same-sex pairings had more discussion of feelings by both counselor and client, and that inexperienced males and experienced female counselors were more active and empathic and elicited more feelings from clients than did their counterparts. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stage differences in the dependencies of topic initiation and topic following behavior.

I examined the topic initiation/topic following sequence data from the beginning, middle, and late stages of 16 counseling dyads (a successful and less successful dyad from each of eight counselors). I hypothesized that the beginning, middle, and end of successful counseling would demonstrate different patterns of dependency in the sequence data. Client and counselor topic initiation and topic following behavior was examined by using loglinear analysis to see the extent to which they varied because of the previous behavior of the other participant (interchain dependency), their own previous behavior (intrachain dependency), outcome (determined by a composite of client and counselor evaluations), and stage. Although high interchain dependencies were present for all the clients and counselors, significant variation was related to stage and outcome. Further, both clients and counselors in successful dyads demonstrated significant increases of intrachain dependency in the end stage, but no similar increases were found for either clients or counselors in the less successful dyads. These results are discussed with respect to relationship formation and development, differences in client and counselor role, and implications for future studies on interaction sequences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the perception of process variables in counseling.

Analyzed the effects of race and socioeconomic status (SES) on the perception of process variables in counseling, including judged counselor empathy, judged counselor–client cognitive similarity, and attraction. The study used a 2?×?12?×?2?×?6 design (race of S, tape order, SES of client, race of counselor and client) with repeated measures on the SES of client variable and the race of counselor and client variable. Following empathy training, 12 Black and 12 White undergraduate middle-class males listened to 12 specially prepared counselor–client taped dialogs and rated the counselor and client on each tape on the process variables being researched. All hypotheses were confirmed. Both Black and White Ss gave highest counselor empathy ratings, client–counselor attraction and cognitive similarity ratings, and client improvement ratings to matchings in which the counselor and client were similar over race and social class, and they gave lowest ratings when the counselor and client were dissimilar over race and social class. Effects of client accent were generally not significant. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interracial and intraracial quasi-counseling interactions when counselors avoid discussing race.

Dyadic interactions composed of Black clients and White or Black race-avoidant counselors in 1-time quasi-counseling sessions were influenced by myriad factors, including how these clients responded to influential purveyors of a race-neutralizing climate. Using C. E. Thompson, R. Worthington, and D. R. Atkinson's (see record 1994-30597-001) data set, 24 of these interactions were analyzed to identify significant patterns in the counseling process. The following core categories related to interactional quality were uncovered: smooth, exasperated, constricted, and disjunctive. The following factors explicated these interactional quality categories: (1) whether and how the client introduced race or race-related concerns, (2) client racial identity perspectives; and (3) client affiliation (or lack thereof) with the counselor based on race. The implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor and client racial similarity on the counselor's response patterns and skills.

To test the hypothesis that factors of racial differences may mediate counselor–client interactions in terms of the counselor's attending and expressive response style and the delivery and type appropriateness of responses, 60 graduate level Black and White counselor trainees were asked to counsel both Black and White clients. As hypothesized, Ss' delivery scores and the type appropriateness of responses were significantly better under conditions of racial similarity with the clients. Both Black and White Ss were rated as being more expressive than attending in their response patterns toward Black clients. Findings have implications for counselor–client relationships and professional training programs for psychological counseling in multiracial settings. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selected process variables as a function of client type and cognitive complexity in beginning counselors.

Investigated the effect on 4 selected counseling process variables by utilizing multiple measures of cognitive complexity and varied counseling tasks. Cognitive complexity was assessed with 5 separate measures (interconcept distance measure of cognitive complexity, intolerance of trait consistency, intolerance of ambiguity, category width, and paragraph completion test), and counseling tasks consisted of 2 counseling sessions with simulated clients. Ss were 33 22–44 yr old 1st-yr counselors grouped according to their cognitive style. The process variables were counselor–client congruency, counselor empathy, counselor verbal mode, and subrole. The principal findings of the study are as follows: (a) Counselor cognitive complexity did not significantly discriminate between measures of the 4 process variables. (b) There was a significant difference in performance on 3 process variables (counselor subrole, verbal mode, and accurate empathy) between the 2 counseling tasks. (c) There was a significant interaction effect between counseling tasks and the low-complexity group on accurate empathy. Within certain restrictions, it is concluded that differences in the simulated clients appear to be more influential on certain process variables than the information processing style of the student counselor. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypothesis formation and testing in clinical judgment.

Examined the influence of a counselor characteristic (cognitive complexity), a general client observation (disability status), and a specific client observation (positive, negative, or inconsistent personality test results) on the quality of clinical hypotheses counselors develop about clients' problems and the number of questions they generate to test these hypotheses. 35 graduate students in counselor training completed a measure of cognitive complexity (the Paragraph Completion Method) before being presented with the case folders of 6 hypothetical clients. Ss were asked to read the material and form hypotheses concerning why the clients sought counseling. The case folders had varied client observations. Results show no effect of any of the independent variables on hypothesis quality; however, there was a significant interaction between specific and general client observations on the number of questions developed to test clinical hypotheses. Results suggest that both specific and general observations are important factors in clinical judgment. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of objective evidence of expertness and nonverbal behavior on client-perceived expertness.

Studied the effects of objective evidence of specialized training and expert nonverbal behaviors in a videotaped counseling analog setting. 80 female undergraduates viewed videotapes of a standardized counseling interaction between a professional counselor and a confederate client and then rated the counselor on a credibility checklist. Results of the 2-factor ANOVA indicate that each manipulation significantly affected perceived expertness. The expert nonverbal behavior had the greater effect on Ss' perceptions, and there was no interaction on effects. Implications for counseling practice and research are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empirically derived client typologies: A missing link to the evaluation of the rehabilitation counseling process.

Identified 3 client typologies, based on the content analysis of expressed concerns and problems of 82 clients (average age 31 yrs), collected in conjunction with an 11-state rehabilitation agency project that focused on counselor–client interactions and client outcomes. Using an inverse factor analysis, 3 statistically independent client typologies or subgroups were delineated: (a) Vocational–Educational, (b) Physical/Environmental Coping, and (c) Personal–Social. In turn, the typologies were found to differentiate the interpersonal styles of 45 counselors (mean age 39 yrs), in terms of their pattern of percentage of use of counseling interview subrole behaviors and levels of facilitative conditions communicated. Implications are discussed for the inclusion of content analysis of clients' problem discussion topics in counseling process and outcome investigations and the differential effectiveness that varying counseling styles have for clients who present different problem-solving situations in counseling settings. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social cognitive variables in the prediction of client motivation and attrition.

Applied A. Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the prediction of client motivation and attrition from counseling. 139 university counseling center clients completed a measure of self-efficacy regarding their ability to negotiate counseling tasks, along with measures of counseling-related outcome expectations, perceived motivation, problem distress level, state anxiety, and self-esteem. Results indicated that (1) self-efficacy and outcome expectations each explained unique variation in motivation, beyond client and counselor background variables; (2) self-efficacy and motivation each contributed to the prediction of client return status after an intake interview; and (3) self-efficacy did not relate to global self-esteem or to state anxiety at the intake session. These results suggest that social cognitive theory may help illuminate the process whereby clients commit to counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)