Social influence research in counseling: A review and critique.

This review concerns recent research on counseling as a social influence process. Studies published since 1981 are presented in two groups, according to whether they pertain to the first or second stage of S. R. Strong's (see PA, Vol 42:12025) influence model, and within these groups, according to the type of methodology used (interview and noninterview analogue studies and field studies) and the variables of interest (counselor, message, and client variables, and combinations of these). Then, the social influence literature as a whole is critically examined as to its methodological and theoretical adequacy. Major criticisms include the low external validity of the research, the disproportionate emphasis of the research on counselor perceptions rather than influence itself, and the weak connection between research and theory. Solutions are proposed for particular methodological problems, and recommendations are made for further research and theory development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Replication and extension of social influence processes in counseling: A field study.

Attempted to validate S. R. Strong's (1968) theory of counseling as a social influence process by using a correlational field study, replicating the 3-factor structure of clients' perceptions, and extending findings to the relationship between counselor attributes and the success of an intake interview. 250 college students seeking help from a university counseling center's walk-in service participated in the pre- and postintake interview design. Factor analysis of both preintake preferences for counselor attributes and postintake perceptions of actual counselors resulted in extraction of 3 factors corresponding to Expertness, Attractiveness, and Trustworthiness. Regression analysis accounted for 48% of the variance in Ss' ratings of satisfaction with the intake interview. Four variables contributed significantly to prediction. Regression analysis of Ss' return for a scheduled referral revealed no significant predictors. Replicated findings and divergent results are discussed in terms of the validity of Strong's model and the need for field validation. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived counselor social influence and counseling outcomes: Validity of the Counselor Rating Form.

Examined the predictive validity of the Counselor Rating Form (CRF) and tested S. R. Strong's model of the impact of counselor social influence on counseling outcomes. 36 15–32 yr old clients from a rural midwestern outpatient drug treatment program were asked to rate counselors after their initial interview and then after their final counseling session using the CRF. Precounseling and postcounseling scores were generated for each client using the method of Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS). Scores from pre- and postcounseling CRF and GAS were used to study the relationship between initial client perceptions and postcounseling outcomes. The major hypothesis that a positive relationship would occur between final perceptions and outcomes was supported. Regression analyses produced a prediction equation using CRF variables that accounted for 35% of outcome variance. Results suggest the research and clinical utility of the CRF and the validity of the social influence model on which its dimensions are based. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling psychology trainees' social justice interest and commitment.

Scholars within the field of counseling psychology have for some time now articulated eloquent and compelling calls for attending to social justice in the social sciences. To date, counseling psychologists have been at the forefront of addressing social justice issues in research, practice, and professional development. The present study advances empirical perspectives on social justice by testing the external validity of M. J. Miller et al.'s (2009) social-cognitive model of social justice interest and commitment in a sample of 229 doctoral trainees in counseling psychology. Present findings support the ability of the model to explain, in part, counseling psychology trainees' social justice interest and commitment. In addition, the present study provides novel findings that demonstrate the direct and indirect ways in which program training environment and personal moral imperative relate to social justice interest and commitment. Study limitations, future directions for research, and implications for training are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social psychology and counseling psychology: The history, products, and promise of an interface.

For 3 decades, counseling psychologists have drawn ideas from social psychology about the social process of counseling, integrated the ideas into counseling theories, and assessed them in research. This article traces the history of this interface, examines its products, and projects its future. Three propositions have guided and have been supported by much of the research: (1) Successful counseling relationships generate psychological convergence between counselor and client through a systematic developmental process; (2) ideas counselors introduce that are discrepant from clients' understandings stimulate change; and (3) clients' responsiveness to counselors is a function of their dependence on the counselors. These social influence dynamics underlie the processes and outcomes of counseling relationships regardless of the clinical theory that guides the counselors' work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Milestones in the psychological analysis of social influence.

Social influence research has been, and remains, the defining hallmark of social psychology. The history of this preoccupation is reviewed selectively, and important contributions to social influence and persuasion are discussed. The central thesis of the presentation is that a return to a consideration of the social group, a critical source of identity and individuality, pays major dividends in understanding the processes of social influence. Moscovici's insistence on the importance of minority influence processes is seen as a harbinger of the return of the group to social influence. Finally, the leniency contract is proposed as a model that integrates these insights with important features of social identity, the elaboration likelihood model, and considerations of structural attitude theory in developing a predictive device that accounts for immediate and persistent majority attitude change as well as indirect and delayed focal change attributable to minority persuasion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Antecedents and effects of perceived therapist credibility: A meta-analysis.

Published studies examining antecedents or effects (or both) of perceived therapist credibility were subjected to a meta-analytic review to test S. R. Strong's (1968) 2-phase model of interpersonal influence in counseling. Results conformed to the predictions of the model, with therapist credibility cues moderately related to credibility, and credibility strongly related to therapist influence. Cue type was a significant moderator of the relation between cues and credibility. Cue types were also differentially related to influence, but this relation was mediated by cue strength, or the relation of cues to credibility. Tests of differential reactivity among influence measures yielded equivocal results, as did tests of participant involvement as a moderator of the relation between cues and influence. It is suggested that a simple mediational model cannot fully account for the relations among cues, credibility, and influence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The obstinate audience: The influence process from the point of view of social communication.

The social model of man and the scientific model(s) of man and "the relationships of these 2 models in the area of social communication" are discussed. Major findings of research on attitude change are summarized. Communication, given a reasonably large audience, varies in its impart. The audience exercises much more initiative outside the laboratory than it does in the experimental situation. The audience in effect influences the communicator by the role it forces on him. Individuals process new information as a function of their perceived relationship to future audiences. The audience selects from what is offered. "The process of social communication and of the flow of influence in general must be regarded as a transaction. The argument for using the transactional model for scientific purposes is that it opens the door more fully to exploring the intention and behavior of members of the audience and encourages inquiry into the influence of the audience on the communicator by specifically treating the process as a 2-way passage." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The experimenter effect.

Recent investigations in experimental psychology have shown somewhat striking results which indicate that Es may and do influence their data. This problem was considered in relation to the areas of: experimental, counseling, and testing psychology. A historical review revealed that although the influence of E has been generally acknowledged, an unconcerned attitude towards this phenomenon has been taken, especially by experimental psychologists. Counseling psychology has been most concerned with the experimenter effect because this is closely related to the counseling situation. Workers in this area have not only recognized but have attempted to manipulate E influence. In the field of testing, investigators have reported significant variability in Ss' performances as a result of E characteristics. (42 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A perspective on the history of process and outcome research in counseling psychology.

Traces the development of process and outcome research from before the foundation of counseling psychology in 1946 to the present time. First, theoretical contributions are focused on, with particular attention to the influence of C. Rogers's theory, behavior theory, psychoanalytic theory, systems theory, interpersonal theory, and social influence theory. Next, H. J. Eysenck's challenge to the efficacy of psychotherapy; the uniformity myth that process and outcome are similar across diverse clients, therapists, and contexts; and changes in research methods over the years are covered. The article concludes with recommendations for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Obituary: Daniel Katz (1903–1998).

Memorializes Daniel Katz, known for his work in the field of social psychology. He was among the earliest users of survey methods to study social psychological problems, and he improved the methods with which he worked. His early studies on racial stereotypes illuminated the nature and extent of prejudice, and his later cross-cultural research revealed the various forms of nationalism. His theoretical research on attitude formation and change linked methods of change to the different motivational bases of attitudes themselves. Finally, his sustained interest in formal organizations reflected his conviction that these massively influential factors in modern life were a necessary part of a comprehensive social psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A current perspective on gender differences: Implications for research in counseling.

This selective review of the literature examines gender differences in counseling process and outcome. Although trends in the findings have revealed that female clients may be more successful with female counselors, most findings have been inconclusive. This problem may stem from applying a traditional individual differences methodology to the study of gender differences. As a result, most effect sizes for gender have been small to moderate. A social psychological model of gender differences that might inform the research on counseling process and outcome is presented, and related recommendations for future research are made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and initial validation of the Multicultural Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale--Racial Diversity Form.

Drawing upon social-cognitive theory and the multicultural counseling competency literature, the Multicultural Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale-Racial Diversity Form (MCSE-RD) was developed to assess perceived ability to counsel racially diverse clients. Data were collected from 181 graduate students in counseling-related programs, 41 undergraduate psychology students, and 22 graduate students enrolled in a prepracticum course. Results of an exploratory factor analysis retained 37 items and identified three underlying factors: Multicultural Intervention, Multicultural Assessment, and Multicultural Session Management. MCSE-RD subscale and total scores produced adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates. Initial validity findings indicated theory-consistent relations of MCSE-RD scores with general counseling self-efficacy, multicultural counseling competency, social desirability, therapist demographics, and educational/training variables. Participation in prepracticum was associated with positive change in MCSE-RD scores. Implications for training and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Obituary: William James McGuire (1925-2007).

Obituary of William James McGuire (1925-2007). William James McGuire, considered by some to be the "father of social cognition" and a leading expert on attitude change and the self-concept, died in his home in New Haven, Connecticut, on December 21, 2007. McGuire was for several decades the field's premier researcher of the psychology of persuasion. His creative, groundbreaking experimental research in this area not only brought the study of attitudes and social influence to center stage in psychology but also shaped neighboring fields in sociology, political science, communication, and marketing. McGuire was a fellow of eight divisions of the American Psychological Association (APA) and a past president of APA Division 8 (Personality and Social Psychology). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Social Psychology.

Reviews the book, Social Psychology edited by Daniel Perlman and P. Chris Cozby (1983). The book covers almost all the traditional range of topics, with chapters on research methods, socialization, attitude change (two chapters), attribution, social perception, interpersonal attraction, aggression, helping behaviour, behaviour, interpersonal influence and social exchange (two separate chapters), and group dynamics. This book comes close to being an excellent social psychology text, and if it were judiciously revised, it might rate that evaluation. Many of its chapters are extremely good, and its focus on social problems is an admirable attempt to make social psychology more meaningful and relevant. At present, however, its weaknesses would lead this reviewer to stick with one of the existing texts. While the editors have achieved their goals of bringing social issues into focus and of providing a more eclectic treatment of social psychological research, they have failed with respect to giving adequate attention to the need for diversity in age and backgrounds of people studied, to the need to search for limiting conditions under which relationships hold, and to the need to be sensitive to cultural variation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling as a social influence process: A review.

Conceptualizing counseling as an instance of social influence has led several authors to suggest that factors such as credibility and interpersonal attraction, extensively researched by social psychologists, may be of importance in understanding counseling and other therapeutic relationships. These suggestions, and especially the article by S. R. Strong (1968), have stimulated a great deal of research. That research and relevant, related research is reviewed with the intent of offering suggestions for future study and for considering the following questions: Do counselors influence clients? What cues do clients use to infer expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness in their counselors? Is it useful to consider counseling as a social influence process? (3? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnographic Decision Tree Modeling: A Research Method for Counseling Psychology.

This article describes ethnographic decision tree modeling (EDTM; C. H. Gladwin, 1989) as a mixed method design appropriate for counseling psychology research. EDTM is introduced and located within a postpositivist research paradigm. Decision theory that informs EDTM is reviewed, and the 2 phases of EDTM are highlighted. The 1st phase, model building, is an inductive process consisting of a series of ethnographic interviews designed to describe and diagram the choices of decision makers. The 2nd phase, model validation, utilizes linear hypothesis testing borrowed from a quantitative research paradigm. During model validation, the group decision model is tested using a separate group of participants from the same population. Strengths and limitations of EDTM, and its potential applications in counseling psychology research, are emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of contemporary psychoanalysis in counseling psychology.

Examined the potential relevance of contemporary psychoanalysis to counseling theory, research, and practice. It is argued that contemporary psychoanalytic theorists increasingly emphasize (a) adaptive processes, or those features of the person that mediate the demands and pressures of both internal and external realities, and (b) social relations, or the influence of important others on developmental processes. To distinguish between theories of the person and the treatment hour, a number of emerging topics relevant to the counseling psychologist are highlighted. In regard to theories of the person, the process of psychological separation, adaptation across the life span, and cognitive processes are discussed. Within the treatment hour, the central role of relationship variables, the role of interpretation and stage processes within brief therapy models, and the need to match personality characteristics to intervention strategies are noted. Contemporary psychoanalytic thought will not hold a central position in counseling psychology until systematic research on psychoanalytic propositions is conducted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reappraisal of the self-concept and implications for counseling.

Presents a conceptual reformulation of the self-concept and its application for counseling purposes. An overview is provided of current theory and findings about the structure and function of the self-concept in cognitive information processing and social interaction in terms from the areas of basic and social cognition. This overview includes a view of the contents of the self-concept that is expanded to contain conceptions of possibility. Also examined are cognitive process factors through which the self-concept aids in constructing and understanding of self and the social world and in mediating subsequent responses. Implications of this model and research for counseling purposes are considered, with emphasis on assessment and group counseling. (3? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Existential theory: Guidelines for practice in child therapy.

One reason for the limited attention to existential psychology in child treatment is the assumption that children are restricted in the amount of freedom and responsibility they can assume. However, current research on child development reveals that children actively influence their social and physical environment and hence begin from birth the process of self-determination. This article presents guidelines for implementing existential psychology with children derived from theoretical tenets and case study findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)