Counselor intentionality: An emerging view of process and performance.

Contends that intentionality, viewed as a trait related to counselor functioning and performance, is an emerging perceptual construct that is important for counseling research. Differing definitions of intentionality focus on bipolarity, unintentional functions, and being trapped in one intentionality. Empirical studies have shown that counselor behavior is perceived as counselor intention and that counselor ratings of counselor response helpfulness were not predictive of client perceptions; client ratings were not predictive of counselor perceptions of response helpfulness either, but trained observers significantly predicted both client and counselor ratings. It is suggested that a more clearly defined and measured construct of intentionality could be used to distinguish levels of professional functioning in counselors. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empirical investigation of the cognitive mediational paradigm for research on counseling.

Examined relations among counselor and client cognitions, behaviors, and ratings in 29 counseling sessions involving 10 different counselor–client pairs, using stimulated recall and content analysis. Clients were university students; there were 4 counselors with 7–25 yrs' experience and 3 who were counseling interns. The design of the study permitted assessments of the impact of counselor experience (novice vs experienced) and stage of counseling (early, middle, and end) on these variables. Consistency in various parts of the sequential chain of counselor intention (counselor behavior, client perceptions of counselor intention and behavior, client cognitive processing, and client behavior) was lower for interpersonal cognitive than for interpersonal behavioral or intrapersonal cognitive–behavioral links. Consistency across different elements in this chain was observed to account for a significant proportion of the variance in counselor ratings of session effectiveness. Consistent, interpretable patterns observed across counselor intentions, counselor behaviors, and client cognitive processing are discussed. Relatively few effects of stage of counseling or of counselor experience were observed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gay and bisexual male clients' perceptions of counseling: The role of perceived sexual orientation similarity and counselor universal-diverse orientation.

A recurring question in multicultural counseling is whether client–counselor similarity on sociodemographic characteristics benefits counseling. A related issue is how counselor orientation to diversity relates to counseling process and outcome, both as a main effect and in interaction with counselor–client sociodemographic match. This cross-sectional study investigated these questions in relation to gay and bisexual male clients' counseling experiences by examining clients' perceived similarity to their counselor in sexual orientation, as well as counselors' self-reported orientation to diversity (assessed in terms of level of universal-diverse orientation [UDO]). Data were from 83 male–male client–counselor dyads recruited from lesbian/gay/bisexual-affirming counseling practices, where clients identified as gay or bisexual and counselors identified as gay, bisexual, or heterosexual. Counselor UDO was positively and uniquely associated with client ratings of the working alliance, session depth, and session smoothness. Perceived sexual orientation similarity was not directly related to any of the counseling-related criterion variables. Moreover, when counselors reported low levels of UDO, perceived similarity was negatively associated with the client-rated alliance and perceived improvement. Client religious commitment—a control variable in all analyses—was uniquely and negatively associated with client ratings of perceived improvement in counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

An interpersonal analysis of affinity, clarification, and helpful responses with American Indians.

The interpersonal impact of counselor affinity, clarification, and helpful verbal responses used in the initial stages of counseling American Indian clients was examined. In Phase 1 of the study, a panel of 10 practicing counselors provided intent ratings for each type of response; 82 psychology students generated counselor statements in response to written counseling vignettes and rated their intent in providing each response. In Phase 2, 43 American Indian students assumed the role of a client and judged the interpersonal impact of each type of counselor verbal intervention using the Impact Message Inventory. The results with respect to Affinity and Clarification conditions revealed a reaction pattern of friendly submissiveness and supported the interpersonal principle of complementarity. More complex, uncomplementary reactions associated with hostile dominance were evoked by the Helpful condition. Implications of these findings and the utility of the interpersonal paradigm for cross-cultural counseling research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client and Counselor Trainee Attachment as Predictors of Session Evaluation and Countertransference Behavior in First Counseling Sessions.

This study investigated client and counselor trainee attachment as predictors of session evaluation and countertransference behavior in 93 first counseling sessions. Results indicated that client attachment predicted aspects of session evaluation, whereas counselor attachment and the interaction of client and counselor attachment predicted aspects of countertransference. Specifically, client fearful attachment was negatively associated with client ratings of session smoothness and depth and with counselor ratings of session smoothness. Counselor dismissing attachment was positively associated with supervisor ratings of hostile countertransference. Furthermore, interactions between client and counselor attachment predicted hostile and distancing countertransference reactions, such that countertransference was highest when the client had a preoccupied attachment pattern and the counselor trainee had a fearful or dismissing attachment pattern. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An assessment of the gap between counseling theory and practice.

Used microcounseling procedures to assess differences between intended counseling behavior and actual practice among 43 graduate students in counselor education. A paradigm developed by D. H. Frey was used to divide counseling behavior into 4 types: rational-insight counseling, affective-insight counseling, affective-action counseling, and rational-action counseling. Ss met with 1 of 2 distinctly different coached clients in a 4-min videotaped microcounseling interview in which both self- and peer ratings were obtained. No significant differences were found between intended and actual behavior as perceived by the counselors themselves, but their intended behavior was significantly different from peer perceptions of interview behavior. Client type had no effect. Results indicate that beginning counselors have a need to see their counseling as being theoretically consistent, even when peer ratings indicate a gap between the beginning theoretical stance and actual practice. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mexican Americans' bilingual ability, counselor bilingualism cues, counselor ethnicity, and perceived counselor credibility.

In a completely crossed, factorial design, 186 Mexican American college students were exposed to a counselor introduction that identified her as either Mexican American or Canadian American, followed by an audiotape-recorded bogus counseling session in which the counselor either spoke English only or English combined with cues of Spanish-speaking ability. After listening to the tape-recorded counseling session, participants rated the counselor's credibility and cross-cultural competence. No effect was found on ratings for counselor language or counselor ethnicity. However, ratings of both counselor credibility and cross-cultural competence were found to be a function of participants' bilingual ability. Combined with evidence of a similar relationship between generation since immigration and ratings of the counselor, these findings suggest that, as Mexican Americans acculturate, their perceptions of counselor credibility and cross-cultural competence diminish. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Session impact, working alliance, and treatment outcome in brief counseling.

Examined associations among working alliance, session evaluations over the course of brief counseling, and counseling outcome. At a training clinic, 61 clients and student counselors from 41 dyads completed ratings of session depth, smoothness, positivity, and arousal after their 1st 12 sessions. Alliance ratings were completed after the 4th session and at termination. Clients and counselors also provided 5 measures of counseling outcome. Results indicated that session evaluations were significantly related to later alliance ratings, and positive alliance ratings predicted subsequent session evaluations. Both linear and curvilinear session effects were suggested. Associations for client ratings were generally stronger than for counselor ratings. Both alliance and session evaluations were significant unique predictors of client-related outcome, but only alliance predicted counselor-rated outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client preference and expectancy upon the initial interview.

Used a 2 * 3 design with 10 Ss per cell to show how initial counseling interview process and outcome are affected by (a) assigning clients to either more preferred or less preferred counselors; (b) giving clients either positive, nonexistent, or negative expectancy inductions regarding their counselor assignments; and (c) congruence and incongruence between clients' expectations and experiences. Process and outcome were assessed using client and counselor self-report measures and audiotape segment ratings. More preferred assignment conditions received more favorable tape ratings than did less preferred assignment conditions. Positive or no-expectancy conditions revealed a more favorable counseling outcome than did negative expectancy conditions. Most Ss showed increased preferences for counselors seen despite congruence or incongruence between their expectations and experiences. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linking in-session change to overall outcome in short-term cognitive therapy.

Validated suboutcome measures that represent intermediate links between more molecular in-session changes and ultimate outcome. The present study involved the collection of pre- and postsession ratings from 53 patients in a 20-session protocol of cognitive therapy, which yielded anxiety shift, depression shift, cognitive shift, optimism shift, and therapeutic alliance. From a series of regression analyses of repeated measures with a generalized estimating equations approach, results regarding the predictive relationship of these variables to a number of patient and therapist-rated outcome criterion variables indicated that change in cognition and quality of the therapeutic alliance were the strongest predictors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor-client agreement on session impact.

We propose a new framework for understanding studies of counselor–client agreement about their counseling. The framework includes five factors: the scope of counseling being studied (process, impact, or outcome), the dimension (index) being rated (in this study, session Depth, Smoothness, Positivity, or Arousal), the measure used to assess agreement (correlations or absolute differences), the level at which the analysis is conducted (session, client, or counselor), and the type of agreement—(a) consensus, the similarity of counselors' own ratings to clients' own ratings; (b) counselor awareness, the similarity of counselors' perceptions of their clients to clients' own ratings; (c) client awareness, the similarity of counselors' own ratings to clients' perceptions of their counselors; and (d) matched awareness, the similarity of counselors' perceptions of their clients to clients' perceptions of their counselors. In a study of session impact (scope), degree of agreement was found to vary substantially with each of the other factors—type of agreement, dimension rated, measure of agreement, and level of analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive mediation in person-centered and rational-emotive therapy.

Relations among counselor and client cognitive and behavioral variables were examined in relation to counselor and client ratings of counseling effectiveness. Unlike previous cognitive-mediational process research on counseling, the conceptual and coding systems used were tailored specifically to two different counseling approaches. Data were obtained from videotapes of 20 counseling sessions and from 40 stimulated recall interviews with both counselors and clients following the counseling sessions. Ten of the sessions followed a rational-emotive format; 10 followed a person-centered format. Both therapeutic conditions consisted of two dyads, each studied experimentally during 5 sessions selected from brief counseling interventions. Results indicated that variables composed from both cognitive and behavioral data predicted participant ratings of counseling effectiveness more than did behavioral variables alone. As in previous research, such relations seemed to depend on a strong negative correlation between counselor transparency (accurate client perceptions of counselor intentions) and participant ratings of counseling effectiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reliability, sensitivity to measuring change, and construct validity of a measure of counselor adaptability.

Conducted 3 studies with 44 practicing counselors (aged 24–42 yrs), 11 counselors-in-training, and 42 counselors whose experience ranged from MA-level trainees through PhD psychologists with 18 yrs postdoctoral experience as counselors to assess the psychometric adequacy of the Counselor Behavior Analysis Scale (CBAS). The CBAS measures the central explanatory construct of the adaptive counseling and therapy theory of the 2nd author and colleagues (in press), that is, counselor adaptability. Results suggest that counselor adaptability can be appropriately measured by the CBAS and that counselor adaptability is highly predictive of counseling outcome and is related to other counselor constructs (specifically empathy and talkativeness). (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When counselors are heard but not seen: Initial impact of physical attractiveness.

Out of a total of 72 undergraduates, 24 males and 24 females viewed the videotaped professional self-presentation of a presumed counselor who was either physically attractive or unattractive. Ss then indicated their impressions of the counselor on 12 traits and their expectancies of the counselor's helpfulness for 15 personal problems. Relative to the physically unattractive counselor, the attractive counselor generally was perceived more favorably by both sexes, especially with regard to his intelligence, friendliness, assertiveness, trustworthiness, competence, warmth, and likeability. The attractive counselor also elicited more favorable counseling outcome expectancies for 8 of the specific personal problems. 2 control groups who listened to the tapes but were unaware of the counselor's appearance did not differ from each other in their ratings of the counselors. Results are discussed in the context of previous and further research on the physical attractiveness variable and in the context of their implications for counseling. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential helpfulness of counselor verbal response modes.

28 counselor–client dyads (analog sample consisting of 15 graduate students and faculty and 28 undergraduates) and 16 client–counselor dyads (counseling sample) rated the helpfulness of particular counselor responses in just-completed counseling sessions, using Interpersonal Process Recall. In the counseling sample, counselors also rated the helpfulness of the same responses. The responses were measured for type of response made by objective raters, clients, and counselors. Interpretations received the highest helpfulness ratings from both client and counselor. Advisements were rated as slightly more helpful than nonadvisements, and questions were rated as slightly less helpful than nonquestions. However, counselor response modes account for only a small proportion of the variance in helpfulness ratings, which points out the need for research on contextual variables and response mode subtypes. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impressions of counselors as a function of counselor physical attractiveness.

Assessed the effects of counselor physical attractiveness and interactions between attractiveness and counselor and S sex. 40 male and 40 female undergraduates rated their 1st impressions of a counselor and their expectations for counseling outcome on the basis of a photograph of either an attractive or an unattractive person and a brief, audiotaped self-introduction by either a male or a female counseling psychologist. Attractiveness did not show main effects but did interact with sex variables, which did show several main effects. Female counselors, particularly in the attractive condition, received higher ratings than male counselors on several impression variables, and female Ss gave higher ratings on impression variables than did male Ss. Both attractive and unattractive counselors were within the normal range of attractiveness, however. It is suggested that within the natural setting, sex of counselor and client may play a more important role independently and in conjunction with attractiveness than does attractiveness alone in influencing impressions and expectations. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors of observer ratings of multicultural counseling competence in Black, Latino, and White American trainees.

Using transcribed intake sessions of 52 counselor–client dyads, this study explored the relative contributions of (a) counselor and client race or ethnicity, (b) counselor–client racial or ethnic match, (c) previous academic training in multicultural counseling, and (d) self-reported multicultural counseling competence to observer ratings of trainees' multicultural counseling competence. Results revealed that (a) Black American and Latino American counselor trainees were rated as more multiculturally competent than their White American peers, and (b) prior multicultural training was positively predictive of observer-rated multicultural counseling competence. Implications of the findings for counselor training and practice are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mexican-American acculturation, counselor ethnicity and cultural sensitivity, and perceived counselor competence.

189 Mexican-American community college students identified as low, medium, or high in acculturation were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 possible stimulus conditions generated by crossing 2 counselor introductions (Mexican American or Anglo American) with 2 tape-recorded counseling simulations (culturally responsive or culturally unresponsive). A significant cultural sensitivity effect was found for perceptions of cultural competence. Highest ratings of cultural competence were obtained when the counselor was portrayed as culturally responsive and lowest ratings when the counselor was portrayed as culturally unresponsive, regardless of counselor ethnicity or participant acculturation. All other main and interaction effects for perceived counselor credibility and cultural competence were nonsignificant. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of cross-cultural counseling.

The relationship between cultural dissimilarity and the duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of counseling was studied in the context of 70 actual treatment dyads that varied as to the race of the counselor and the client (White or non-White). White counselors provided fewer sessions than non-White counselors, and non-White clients expressed lower levels of overall satisfaction with counseling, regardless of counselor race. No differences in counseling effectiveness were observed as measured by counselor and client ratings of perceived relief, understanding, and coping. Relative to other treatment dyads, however, White clients seeing White counselors attributed their change more to counseling than to other, outside factors. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between counselors' use of intentions and clients' perception of working alliance.

I examined the relation between counselor intention use and client-rated working alliance. Subjects were 42 volunteer clients paired with 42 counselor trainees for 4 counseling sessions. Ratings were obtained for client interpersonal attitudes, client-rated working alliance, and counselor intention use. Counselor intention use accounted for a moderate amount of variance in client-rated working alliance, after the variance in client interpersonal attitudes was removed. Specific counselor intentions (assessment, explore, support) were negatively related to strength of the working alliance. The implications of these findings for theoretical formulations of working alliance formation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)