The Thematic Apperception Test as an outcome measure in psychotherapy research.

Correlated 2 measures of the TAT—the presence of depressive themes and the ratings of story endings—with other indicators of depression (MMPI and Beck Depression Inventory) or with ratings of improvement. 129 psychiatric hospital patients, aged 20–65 yrs, served as Ss. Results support the potential use of the TAT as an outcome measure in the treatment of depressions. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent mothers' cognitions and behaviors as at-risk indicators.

Examined how qualities of adolescent mothers (AMs) are related to their child's socioemotional development and the relationship between maternal characteristics and the AM's ratings of her child's behavior. Ss included 39 AMs (mean age 17.9 yrs) and their children (aged 4–22 mo). Multiple measures of parental characteristics were used, including self-report measures of parenting expectations and mood orientation, and a qualitative behavioral measure of involvement. Analyses compared these measures with ratings of the child's coping behavior by trained observers and mothers' ratings of their child using the Parenting Stress Index (PSI). Findings indicate that parenting expectations had a unique and differential power in explaining both objective child observation ratings and the mothers' PSI ratings of their children. Interactions involving maternal positive behavior were related significantly to mothers' PSI ratings of the child's acceptability or reinforcement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression in children: Prevalence and correlates.

Assessed the prevalence of severe depression in 3,020 3rd–5th graders according to the risk variables of sex, age, intellectual functioning, and family income. Also investigated was a set of variables theoretically associated with the construct of childhood depression. Data were gathered by means of peer nominations, self-ratings, teachers' observations, and pupil personnel records. Data from 508 of the children's mothers were also obtained from an individually administered, precoded interview. The overall prevalence rate of depression for Ss, based on peer nominations, was 5.2%. Of the 38 variables hypothesized to be in the domain of childhood depression, 18 correlated significantly with the peer nomination measure. Ss nominated on depressive symptoms by their peers were also nominated as unhappy and unpopular. These Ss also rated themselves as depressed. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental factors related to schizophrenia in psychophysiologically labile high-risk males.

Research indicates that certain parameters of electrodermal functioning are related to schizophrenia and risk for schizophrenia. The present study investigated childhood environmental factors in 2 subgroups of high-risk 9–20 yr old males (offspring of schizophrenic mothers): those who showed patterns of electrodermal lability in childhood and later became schizophrenic (9 Ss), and a matched subgroup who showed similar patterns of electrodermal functioning but did not become schizophrenic (9 Ss). The variables examined were parental absence, institutionalization of the child, and quality of the home and neighborhood. The schizophrenic group had experienced significantly more paternal absence during the 2nd yr of life. Schizophrenic Ss also experienced significantly more childhood institutionalization, particularly in the 1st and 6th–20th yrs of life. The quality of home and neighborhood and maternal absence did not distinguish the 2 groups. Findings are interpreted as indicating the importance of paternal presence in ameliorating the disruptive effects of the schizophrenic mother on vulnerable male offspring. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-criticism in adulthood and recalled childhood experience.

Investigated in a sample of 75 medical students the hypothesis that higher levels of self-criticism, a major vulnerability factor for depression, are related to retrospective reports of less satisfactory parenting, even when the potentially confounding factors of mood state and social desirability response set are controlled. At each of 2 measurement times, there were significant cross-sectional correlations between parental ratings and both depression and self-criticism, but the associations with self-criticism were no longer significant when depression was controlled. However, even after controlling for the effects of mood state and social desirability, persons with high levels of self-criticism at both measurement points (high trait self-criticism Ss) reported significantly worse relationships with their mothers than did the remaining Ss. They were also more likely to report below average relationships with both parents jointly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-modal and intramodal transfer as predictors of mental development in full-term and preterm infants.

25 full-term (FT) and 33 preterm (PT) infants who had participated in studies of cross-modal (CM) and intramodal (IM) transfer at 12 mo of age were seen at older ages to assess the predictive validity of these early measures for later cognition. FT Ss were administered the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at 24 mo of age; PT Ss were administered these scales at 12 and 24 mo of age, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Form L-M) at 34 and 40 mo of age, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration at 6 yrs of age. For FT Ss, both 12-mo measures were significantly related to 24-mo Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) scores; for PT Ss, both 12-mo measures were related not only to 24-mo Bayley MDI but to each subsequent measure of cognitive outcome through 6 yrs. 12-mo IM scores were highly correlated with the 6-yr assessment of visual–motor integration. A measure of object permanence obtained at 12 mo was also related to cognitive outcome, but not so consistently as were the other 2 12-mo measures. Although parental education was a significant predictor beginning at 24 mo, multiple regression analyses indicated that the CM and the IM measures substantially increased the percentage of variance in outcome that could be accounted for by parental education alone. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuropsychological performance and positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia.

Examined cognitive functions in 11 positive-symptom (mean age 36 yrs), 10 negative-symptom (mean age 33.8 yrs), and 23 mixed-symptom (mean age 31.4 yrs) schizophrenics; 15 bipolar patients (mean age 34.7 yrs); and 12 normal controls (mean age 34.8 yrs) to explore the relation between symptoms and performance. Ss were administered a neuropsychological test battery including the Purdue Pegboard, the Revised Visual Retention Test, and the Block Design subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R). Group comparisons revealed generalized deficits in schizophrenics. Positive-symptom schizophrenics scored below normal Ss and negative-symptom Ss on 2 measures tapping verbal memory. Multiple regression analyses revealed that negative symptom ratings were inversely associated with performance on visual-motor tasks, whereas positive symptoms were inversely associated with verbal memory performance. Findings are not consistent with the notion that cognitive deficits are uniquely associated with negative symptoms. Instead, results suggest that there may be specific cognitive correlates of both the positive and negative symptom dimensions. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison information and judgments about depression and seeking counseling.

Examined the effects of social comparison information, and the interaction of this information with symptom severity and sex, on 40 male and 40 female undergraduates' evaluations of depression symptoms and their willingness to seek counseling. Ss were administered the Depression Adjective Checklist—Form E (DACL—E) and the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Help Scale, as well as ratings of willingness to seek counseling and manipulation checks. A significant main effect was found on DACL—E scores for social comparison information. Ss who received serious social comparison information reported the highest depression scores. In addition, a significant interaction was found between social comparison information and sex of S in DACL—E scores. A significant main effect was also found on Ss' ratings of willingness to seek counseling for social comparison information and sex of S. Ss were more willing to seek counseling help when the social comparison information was serious. Also, female Ss were more willing to seek counseling than were male Ss. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vulnerability to depression as a function of parental rejection and control.

Investigated the relationship between depression proneness in 46 male and 49 female undergraduates and the amount of care and overprotection they perceived from their parents during childhood. Ss completed a test battery that included the Parental Bonding Instrument, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Fear Survey Schedule. For sons, depression proneness was associated with perceptions of a cold, rejecting father. For daughters, depression proneness was associated with perceptions of an intrusive and controlling mother. The pattern of correlations between parenting practices and depression proneness differed substantially from that observed between parenting practices and fearfulness, suggesting that perceptions of parental rejection and control are not characteristic of psychopathology in general, but can lead to the development of a depression-prone personality. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some child-rearing antecedents of criminal behavior in adult men.

Records collected during childhood (ages 5–23 yrs) and coded prior to knowledge of adult behavior provided information about the childhood homes of 201 men. 30 yrs later, information about criminal behavior was collected from court records. Multiple regression and discriminant function analyses indicated that 6 variables describing family atmosphere during childhood—mother's self-confidence, father's deviance, parental aggressiveness, maternal affection, parental conflict, and supervision—accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in number of convictions for serious crimes. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Abusive and nonabusive parental treatment from the child's perspective.

Interviewed 14 8–14 yr old boys who had been abused by their parents and 10 nonabused counterparts. Ss' perceptions of parental characteristics, discipline techniques, and emotional acceptance/rejection were examined in addition to Ss' attributions for parental treatment. Differences between the perceptions of abused and nonabused Ss were found, and wide variation was discovered in the perceptions of abused Ss. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys who fight at home and school: Family conditions influencing cross-setting consistency.

Compared boys reported to fight at home or at school, and those reported to fight in both settings in terms of their behavior and family backgrounds to test the hypothesis that Ss identified as fighters in both home and school settings would show higher rates of coercive and disobedient behavior in the home than Ss identified as nonfighters or fighters in a single setting. Ss were 74 4th-grade, 78 7th-grade, and 58 10th-grade males, and 17.6% of Ss were classified as fighters in the home by their mothers. Results support the hypothesis: Ss reported to fight by both mothers and teachers scored substantially higher than other Ss on measures of antisocial behavior. Their parents showed poorer monitoring and disciplining practices than parents of the other Ss, and their families were also characterized by more marital conflict, poor problem-solving skills, and parental rejection. Ss who fought only at home had mothers who were less coercive than Ss who fought only at school, as detected by home observations. Findings are discussed in terms of the prevention and treatment of physical violence by boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of parental and peer attachments by women with mood disorders.

The relationship between perceptions of parental and peer attachments at various ages and adult mood disorders was examined in 156 women classified as having bipolar disorder or unipolar depression or as nonpsychiatric controls. Nonpsychiatric controls reported a decreased attachment to their parents over time, but they also reported an increased closeness to their mothers in adulthood following a distant adolescence. Never hospitalized, moderately depressed Ss showed a similar trend toward decreased relatedness, but moderately depressed Ss did not report reestablishment of a close relationship with their mothers after adolescence. Severely depressed and bipolar Ss reported little attachment to their mother at all ages. Bipolar Ss also reported little connectedness to their fathers throughout their lifespan and severely depressed women felt less attached than nonpsychiatric controls to peers during development. None of the psychiatric groups reported difficulties with parental overcontrol. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social, emotional, and intellectual behavior at school among children at high risk for schizophrenia.

Four classroom teachers rated the school behavior of 44 12–17 yr olds of schizophrenic parents and 70 Ss of normal parents as part of an ongoing high-risk study. The ratings were made by teachers using the Pupil Rating Form and the Hahnemann High School Behavior Rating Scale. Ss of schizophrenic parents showed greater interpersonal disharmony, less scholastic motivation, more emotional instability, and lower intelligence than the control Ss, but the difference in introversion was not significant. Two of the 4 Ss with 2 schizophrenic parents had extremely low ratings for scholastic motivation, harmony, emotional stability, and intelligence and a 3rd was rated extremely low on emotional stability, but none of them was extremely introverted. On the basis of the results and a preliminary examination of intermediate outcomes (early hospitalization or psychological treatment after the initial school assessments), it is concluded that disharmony, emotional instability, and low intelligence are the early markers for vulnerability to schizophrenia worthy of most attention. The surprising absence of introverted behavior among Ss of schizophrenic parents indicates that introversion—when it is observed—may best be construed not as a static typology of preschizophrenic character but as a dynamic phase in a process of coping and retreat that precedes schizophrenic breakdown, sometimes by many years. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role learning and interview communication.

In a study with 32 female undergraduates, Ss who differed on a measure of parental identification discussed public and private areas of experience during dyadic interviews. Supporting the assumption that fathers are crucial to the expressive-role development of daughters, Ss who identified primarily with their father rather than with their mother were more personally disclosing overall and talked longer and maintained greater spontaneity on private topics. Contrary to expectation, daughters who identified with conventional-role parents vs sex-role reversed parents did not differ in expressive behaviors. Daughters who modeled after conventional-role mothers were least expressive with their interviewer, however. Implications of sex role identification in the counseling relationship are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting behavior and emotional status of physically abusive mothers.

Administered the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and Cornell Medical Index (CMI) to 8 physically abusive mothers (mean age 27.5 yrs) from low-SES families, 8 matched low-SES control mothers (mean age 26.5 yrs), and 8 matched middle-SES control mothers (mean age 32.9 yrs). Results show that abusive Ss differed from both control groups on the BDI and the Emotional Distress and Physical Symptoms scales of the CMI. Marginally significant differences were found on the Trait Anxiety scale of the STAI. No significant differences were found between control groups. Although direct observation in the home revealed no significant differences among the 3 groups on any measure of child behavior, the abusive Ss engaged in a far higher percentage of negative physical behaviors and a lower percentage of positive behaviors toward their children than did either of the control groups. A model of child abuse is suggested that proposes that parents who are in greater emotional and somatic distress may have a lower threshold for child misbehavior and may react more punitively to it. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and maltreatment as predictors of social competence and social problem-solving skills in school-age children

Childhood depression and child maltreatment have been shown to be important predictors of childhood adjustment problems, including difficulties in the spheres of home, school, and peer relationships. In this study, depression and maltreatment were used to predict social competence and social problem-solving skills, as rated by self, parent, and teacher. The total sample contained 68 children (35 girls, 33 boys), most of whom were at high-risk either due to poverty, physical abuse and neglect (as determined by substantiated Protective Services reports), or exposure to negative life events. Hierarchical multivariate regression analyses were used to identify the contribution of depression and maltreatment to social competence and social problem-solving skills. Depression predicted parents' and teachers' ratings of social competence and parents' ratings of peer rejection. Additionally, depression predicted children's ratings of social competence and both measures of social problem-solving skills. Maltreatment predicted parents' and teachers' ratings of social competence. Gender predicted teachers' ratings of peer rejection and social competence. An additive effect of depression and maltreatment was found such that children who are depressed and maltreated have the lowest social competence as rated by parents and teachers. These children are, therefore, doubly at risk for problems in future relationships.     

Childhood competence and behavior problems.

Examined the relationship between objective measures of childhood competence and behavior problems in 474 2nd–6th graders. Daily classwork measured the academic competence, and peer ratings measured social competence. Median splits formed 4 groups, with competent Ss highest and incompetent Ss lowest on the relatively independent dimensions of academic and social competence. Competent Ss excelled on attitudinal measures of a competent lifestyle and on the Harter Competence (HC) Scales. Teacher ratings on the Behavior Problem Checklist (BPC) attributed fewest problems to competent Ss. Conversely, incompetent Ss achieved the lowest HC and the highest BPC scores. Ss high on social competence and low on academic competence were distinguished by BPC conduct problems and nervousness. Peer nominations of depression on the Peer Nomination Inventory characterized all Ss low on social competence. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual flexibility: Maintenance or recovery of the ability to discriminate non-native speech sounds.

Examined the influence of prior training and linguistic experience on the perception of nonnative speech in 2 experiments. Exp I assessed the effect of laboratory training on the ability of 30 English-speaking adults (aged 18–35 yrs) to discriminate 2 speech contrasts that are used to contrast meaning in Hindi but not in English. Short-term training resulted in an amelioration of the initial poor performance of Ss in discriminating a nonnative voicing contrast, but training had no such effect in the case of a Hindi contrast involving a place of articulation distinction. In Exp II, the performance of 3 groups of English-speaking adults (aged 20–38 yrs)—Ss who had studied Hindi for 5 yrs or more, Ss who were studying Hindi as a 2nd language with early experience of Hindi, and Ss studying Hindi as a 2nd language with no early experience of Hindi—was examined to investigate the effect of studying Hindi as a 2nd language for different periods. Ss who had studied Hindi for at least 5 yrs discriminated both Hindi speech contrasts. While 1 yr of 2nd language experience also improved performance of Ss with no early Hindi experience on the voicing contrast, it had little influence on their ability to discriminate the Hindi place contrast. Ss who had early experience hearing the contrasts being used, but no further exposure, could discriminate both the voicing and place distinctions prior to language study. Findings are discussed in terms of the recovery and maintenance of linguistic perceptual ability. (French abstract) (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-reinforcement and depression in interpersonal interaction: The role of performance level.

19 depressed and 12 nondepressed psychiatric inpatients and 16 nondepressed nonmedical hospital employees (18–60 yrs old) participated in dyadic interactions with age-matched, opposite-sex strangers; each S interacted with a different partner. Ss were rated on a number of measures of social skill, such as the Revealed Differences Questionnaire and the Behavioral Assessment of Speech Anxiety Scale. Following the session, Ss viewed a videotape of their interaction and were given the opportunity, at 30-sec intervals, to reward or punish their performance. Results partially support theories postulating a low, performance-independent level of self-reinforcement specific to depression. Although depressed Ss administered a lower number of self-reinforcements and obtained lower ratings on measures of social skill than did hospital employees, their performance on these variables was not significantly different from that of nondepressed patients. Using social skills scores as covariates did not erase the main effect for Diagnostic Group in an analysis of the number of self-reinforcements administered. The low rate of self-reinforcement administered by the 2 patient groups can not be fully explained in terms of their lower level of social skill. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)