Marriage and the parenting alliance: longitudinal prediction of change in parenting perceptions and behaviors

The study evaluates how marriage and the parenting alliance affect parenting experiences over time. Couples (N = 79) with school-age children who have mental retardation completed self-report and observational measures of marriage, the parenting alliance, and parenting attitudes and behaviors at 2 periods, 18-24 months apart. Longitudinal structural equation modeling demonstrated significant effects of marital quality on changes over time in self-reports of perceived parenting competence for both the mothers and the fathers, and in observed negative mother-child interactions. Also, in all cases, the parenting alliance mediated the effects of marriage on parenting experiences. There was little evidence of reciprocal causation in which parenting variables predicted change in the quality of marriage and the parenting alliance. Interactions involving child age suggested that teenagers as opposed to younger children were more reactive to negative features of their parents' marital functioning and parenting alliance. Implications are discussed regarding stable but negative marital functioning and regarding possible differences in mothers' and fathers' parenting in the context of marital distress.     

Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital conflict, maternal and paternal parenting, and child adjustment: A test of mediation and moderation.

Parenting was examined as a mediator of associations between marital and child adjustment, and parent gender was examined as a moderator of associations among marital, parental, and child functioning in 226 families with a school-age child (146 boys). Parenting fully mediated associations between marital conflict and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Parent gender did not moderate associations when data from the full sample or families with girls only were evaluated. Parent gender did moderate associations when families with boys were evaluated, with the association between marital conflict and parenting stronger for fathers than mothers. A trend suggested fathers' parenting may be more strongly related to internalizing behavior and mothers' parenting may be more strongly related to externalizing behavior in boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal employment and development of the father–infant relationship in the first year.

This study investigated links between maternal employment and fathers' parenting quality when their infants were 4 and 12 months old. Sixty-three fathers were videotaped interacting with their infants and completed questionnaires regarding their involvement in caregiving, parenting stress, and marital quality, and mothers reported on children's temperament. Fathers whose wives either did not work outside the home or worked part time were more sensitive and responsive to their children when they were more involved in caregiving; men whose wives worked full time exhibited more negative affect and behavior when they participated more in child care. Men whose wives were not employed also were more positive in their interactions when they were happier with their marriage, whereas men whose wives worked either part time or full time exhibited a negative relation between parenting behavior and marital quality. Maternal work circumstances were not related to fathers' parenting stress; rather, marital quality and child temperament predicted parenting stress at 4 and 12 months for all fathers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding the role of personality in explaining associations between marital quality and parenting.

Analyses assessed the degrees to which personality accounts for associations between marital quality and parenting and mediates genetic contributions to these relationships. Participants included 318 male and 544 female same-sex twin pairs from the Twin and Offspring Study in Sweden. All twins completed self-report measures of marital quality and personality (anxiousness, aggression, sociability). Composite measures of parent negativity and warmth were derived from the twins’ and their adolescent children’s ratings of the twins’ disciplinary styles and the emotional tone of the parent–child relationship. Observational ratings of marital quality and parenting were also obtained for a subset of twins. Personality characteristics explained 33% to 42% of the covariance between reported marital quality and parenting and 26% to 28% of the covariance between observed marital quality and parenting. For both sets of analyses, personality accounted for more than half of the genetic contributions to covariance between marital quality and parenting. Results indicate that personality significantly contributes to associations between marital quality and parenting and that personality is an important path through which genetic factors contribute to family relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital conflict and the development of infant–parent attachment relationships.

Couples were studied before and after the birth of their 1st child to understand processes by which marital conflict influences child development. Hypotheses were tested concerning direct and indirect processes relating marital conflict to the security of infant–mother and infant–father attachment and disorganized attachment behavior. Findings supported the prediction that chronic marital conflict interferes with sensitive, involved parenting and thereby predicts insecurity in attachment relationships, particularly for fathers. It was also argued that chronic marital conflict presents the infant with experiences of frightened or frightening parents and diminished behavioral options to alleviate accompanying distress. As predicted, disorganized attachment behavior with mother and father was explained by chronic marital conflict and not mediated by parental ego development or sensitive parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital quality and gender differences in parent-child interaction.

This microanalytic study of family interaction establishes links among marital quality, gender, and parent–child relationships. Dyadic conversational exchanges between 38 mothers and fathers and their 3.5-yr-old 1st-born son or daughter were analyzed. Marital quality was related to gender differences in both parent and child behavior, with less maritally adjusted fathers of daughters showing the most negativity toward their children. Sequential analyses showed that gender differences in parents' and children's responses to one another were also mediated by marital quality. Mothers in less satisfied marriages were the least accepting of daughters' assertiveness and were more likely to reciprocate the negative affect of sons. Daughters of parents lower in marital satisfaction were less compliant with their fathers. Implications of these findings for understanding gender differences in the effects of marital conflict on parenting and child development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict resolution in the parent–child, marital, and peer contexts and children’s aggression in the peer group: A process-oriented cultural perspective.

Theories of socialization propose that children’s ability to handle conflicts is learned at home through mechanisms of participation and observation—participating in parent–child conflict and observing the conflicts between parents. We assessed modes of conflict resolution in the parent–child, marriage, and peer-group contexts among 141 Israeli and Palestinian families and their 1st-born toddler. We observed the ecology of parent–child conflict during home visits, the couple’s discussion of marital conflicts, and children’s conflicts with peers as well as aggressive behavior at child care. Israeli families used more open-ended tactics, including negotiation and disregard, and conflict was often resolved by compromise, whereas Palestinian families tended to consent or object. During marital discussions, Israeli couples showed more emotional empathy, whereas Palestinians displayed more instrumental solutions. Modes of conflict resolution across contexts were interrelated in culture-specific ways. Child aggression was predicted by higher marital hostility, more coparental undermining behavior, and ineffective discipline in both cultures. Greater family compromise and marital empathy predicted lower aggression among Israeli toddlers, whereas more resolution by consent predicted lower aggression among Palestinians. Considering the cultural basis of conflict resolution within close relationships may expand understanding on the roots of aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A genetically informed study of associations between family functioning and child psychosocial adjustment.

Research has documented associations between family functioning and offspring psychosocial adjustment, but questions remain regarding whether these associations are partly due to confounding genetic factors and other environmental factors. The current study used a genetically informed approach, the Children of Twins design, to explore the associations between family functioning (family conflict, marital quality, and agreement about parenting) and offspring psychopathology. Participants were 867 twin pairs (388 monozygotic; 479 dizygotic) from the Twin and Offspring Study in Sweden, their spouses, and children (51.7% female; M = 15.75 years). The results suggested associations between exposure to family conflict (assessed by the mother, father, and child) and child adjustment were independent of genetic factors and other environmental factors. However, when family conflict was assessed using only children's reports, the results indicated that genetic factors also influenced these associations. In addition, the analyses indicated that exposure to low marital quality and agreement about parenting was associated with children's internalizing and externalizing problems and that genetic factors also contributed to the associations of marital quality and agreement about parenting with offspring externalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital behavior, parenting behavior, and multiple reports of preschoolers' behavior problems: Mediation or moderation?

Associations among positive and conflictual marital behavior and multiple reports of child behavior problems were examined in a community sample of 78 families with 3-year-old children. Maternal and paternal parenting behaviors were tested as potential mediators and moderators. Parents reported on child behavior problems and were observed during parent-child interaction and couple discussion in the presence of the child. Observers and preschool teachers also reported on child behavior problems. Less positive marital engagement and greater conflict were associated with observers' reports, but not with parents' or teachers' reports, of more behavior problems. Associations between marital behavior and child behavior problems were not explained by maternal or paternal behavior; stronger support was found for moderating effects of parenting. Also, positive marital engagement was a slightly better predictor of child behavior problems than was marital conflict. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Child development and marital relations

This article examines aspects of the marital relationship and its assessment relevant to scholars of child development. The case for attending to marriage in child research is outlined before reviewing what is known about the construct of marital quality, behavior, emotional responding, and cognition in marriage. Practical recommendations are made for assessing each of these areas before arguing that the child's perspective of the marriage is critical for understanding children's behavior. Several limitations and promises of marital research for understanding children are also discussed.     

Parents' attitudes about children: Associations with parental life histories and child-rearing quality.

This study examined relations among parents' perceptions of their childhood, attitudes about life, expectations for child behavior, attitudes about their child's behavior, and the child-rearing environment parents provide. Eighty mothers of 1–5 yr olds were interviewed about perceptions of receiving harsh parenting as children, current attitudes about life, developmental expectations, and views of intentionality and severity of their child's misbehavior. The home environment was measured using the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (R. H. Bradley & B. Caldwell, 1979) scale. Mothers who reported harsh parenting as children, negative attitudes about life, and unrealistic developmental expectations had negative attitudes about their own child. These attitudes were related to provision of lower quality home environments. Results support a constructivist approach to understanding parental social cognitions and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting marital and parent functioning in dyads and triads: A longitudinal investigation of marital processes.

This study assessed longitudinally whether couples' dysregulated negative affect before parenthood is predictive of conflict, as well as diminished affective quality, in family relationships 5 years later. Observations of 25 couples' marital communication were made before parenthood and again 5 years later, when data also were collected on parent–child and family interactions. Husbands' prechild marital behavior and couples' prechild negative escalation were predictive of husbands' conflict and triangulation of the child into marital conflict. Family-level functioning (e.g., coalition formation) was predicted by prechild negative escalation. Parenting behavior was not predicted by prechild marital functioning but was related to current marital functioning. The data provide support for the hypothesis that how couples regulate negative affect early on in marriage sets the tone for future interactions involving parents and their child. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting stress among dual-earner mothers and fathers: Are there gender differences?

Stress in the parenting role has been found to be related to family functioning and parenting behavior. However, most research in this area has been conducted with clinical samples and has not compared parenting stress of mothers and fathers. In this study, 589 married couples with young children (12 to 60 months old) completed the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (Abidin, 1990) and measures of child-rearing behaviors and attitudes, social support, and child behavior. The validity of Abidin's measure and theoretical model was tested, and results were mixed. Small effects were found for mothers and fathers, and these were moderated by child age and marital happiness. Stress as a normal consequence of parenting is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological predictors of parents' sense of confidence and control and self- versus child-focused gratifications.

23 mothers and 16 fathers (age range of mothers and fathers 25–31 yrs) of 1–4 young children (oldest child mean age 3.4 yrs, youngest child mean age 2.3 yrs) completed an interview about their parenting experiences. In addition to gender, measures of psychological differentiation (e.g., the Washington University Sentence Completion Test), perceptions of the marital relationship, and occupational identity status were used to predict the parents' feelings of confidence and control and self- vs child-focused gratifications. Findings indicate that as expected, mothers reported less confidence and control and more self-focused gratifications. Greater marital harmony and more advanced occupational identity statuses predicted more confident parenting; better marital relationships predicted a greater sense of control; and occupational identity status interacted with gender to predict gratifications. Although the direct effects of psychological differentiation were not significant, this variable indirectly affected parenting via its relationship to marriage and work. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Externalizing in preschoolers and early adolescents: A cross-study replication of a family model.

With families of 3.5-yr-olds, the direct and indirect links among parents' depression, marital quality, parenting style, and their children's externalizing behavior were examined using partial least squares analysis. No direct paths were found between parents' depression and their child's behavior. Instead, parents' depression was mediated by the quality of their relationship as a couple or by their parenting style, or by both. A replication with families of 9–13 yr olds supported these findings in the form of the interconnections among family variables and children's outcomes, although the magnitude of the family–child linkage was much lower than it was in the younger sample. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital behavior and the security of preschooler–parent attachment relationships.

Longitudinal and concurrent relations among positive and negative marital behaviors in 2 contexts and preschoolers' security of attachment were examined for 53 families. At 6 months postpartum, couples were observed in their homes during couple discussion and family play. At 3 years, parents completed the Attachment Q-Set (E. Waters, 1987); marital and parenting behavior was also observed. Interparental hostility during family play at 6 months predicted less secure preschooler–mother attachment. Greater marital conflict at 3 years was associated with less security with mother and father, whereas positive marital engagement at 3 years was associated with more secure child-father attachment. Mothers' parenting partially explained the linkages between marital behavior and child–mother attachment. These results highlight the impact of positive and negative marital behaviors on children's abilities to use their parents as a secure base. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of the Oregon model of Parent Management Training (PMTO) on marital adjustment in new stepfamilies: A randomized trial.

Effects of intervention with the Oregon model of Parent Management Training (PMTO?) on marital relationship processes and marital satisfaction in recently married biological mother and stepfather couples were examined. Sixty-seven of the 110 participating families were randomly assigned to PMTO, and 43 families to a non-intervention condition. Intervention had reliable positive indirect effects on marital relationship processes 24 months after baseline which in turn were associated with higher marital satisfaction. These indirect effects were mediated by the impact of PMTO on parenting practices 6 months after baseline. Enhanced parenting practices resulting from PMTO prevented escalation of subsequent child behavior problems at school. Consistent with a family systems perspective and research on challenges to marital quality in stepfamilies, improved co-parenting practices were associated with enhanced marital relationship skills and marital satisfaction as well as with prevention of child behavior problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental reports of coparenting and observed coparenting behavior during the toddler period.

Fifty-two married partners played with their 30-mo-olds in both dyadic (parent–child) and whole family contexts and reported on their own coparenting activities (family integrity-promoting behavior, conflict, disparagement, and reprimand). Coparenting behavior observed in the whole family context was evaluated for antagonism, warmth and cooperation, child–adult centeredness, balance of positive involvement, and management of toddler behavior. Parallel balance and management scores were also formed using dyadic session data. Men's reported family integrity-promoting activities and women's reported conflict and reprimand activities were reliable correlates of family group process in both bivariate and discriminant analyses, with links enduring even after controlling for marital quality. Whole family- and dyad-based estimates of coparenting were altogether unrelated, and reported coparenting was tied only to behavior in family context, not to family measures created from dyad-based data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting attitudes and marital intimacy: A longitudinal analysis.

This longitudinal study examined change in 97 couples' marital intimacy over the first 3 years after the birth of a child. Participants included both first-time and experienced parents. Regardless of parity, both wives and husbands, on average, showed linear declines in marital intimacy; however, significant variability in individual trajectories was found. The study evaluated the relation between parenting attitudes, measured independently for each partner and in terms of agreement between partners, and individual differences in the level and trajectory of marital intimacy. For both wives and husbands, higher perceived difficulty with parenting was related to lower initial levels of marital intimacy. Wives whose husbands held more traditional attitudes regarding child rearing and those whose beliefs about child rearing differed from the beliefs of their partners experienced steeper declines in intimacy over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)