Population density and social, territorial, and physiological measures in the gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus).

Conducted 2 experiments with 80 male and 80 female Mongolian gerbils reared from weaning to adulthood in 4 same-sex and 4 mixed-sex density conditions. Ventral gland marking was greatly affected by density and less so by sex in both same-sex and mixed-sex groups. In same-sex but not mixed-sex groups crowding depressed several social interaction measures as well as body, ventral gland, and testis weights. In the mixed-sex groups, paired males and females had heaviest adrenal glands, ventral glands, and marking scores, as well as the highest reproductive rate. Mixed-sex crowding did not depress either social or physiological measures as much as did same-sex crowding. Effects of crowding are discussed in the framework of an information overload concept. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Familiarity and attraction to pictures of children's faces.

Studied the relationship between familiarity and liking of a peer in 32 children in Grades 1–6. Pictures of boys' and girls' faces were shown at different frequencies; Ss then ranked the faces according to liking. Marked individual differences were found. For Ss with high sex-typed preferences, increased familiarity led to increased liking of same-sex faces and decreased liking of other-sex faces. For Ss with less sex-typed preferences, familiarity did not affect liking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender constancy and the "cost" of sex-typed behavior: A test of the conflict hypothesis.

95 children between 5- and 10-yrs-old watched televised boys and girls who differentially endorsed toys of varying attractiveness. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that behavioral expression of gender norms that arouse conflict would be delayed relative to norms that are conflict-free. Predictions were supported for boys. Gender-constant boys spent more time playing with an uninteresting sex-typed toy than did preconstant boys. When the sex-typed toy was relatively interesting, preconstant boys played with it as much as gender constant boys. Toy play among girls was related to toy attractiveness and the girl's agreement with televised stereotypes. Possible reasons for observed sex differences and previous inconsistencies in the gender constancy literature are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of gender constancy and social power on sex-linked modeling.

In cognitive-developmental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. The present 2 experiments, with 68 29–70 mo old children, tested these predictions. In accord with social learning theory, even Ss at a lower level of gender conception emulated same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones in Exp I. Level of gender constancy was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. Exp II explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex modeling in boys but not girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power for boys. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Androgyny and helping behavior.

Suggests that sex differences found in previous studies of how bystanders' help in emergency situations may have been due to Ss' following sex-role expectations for this type of situation. To study this possibility, 78 male and 82 female undergraduates, classified by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) as either androgynous or sex-typed, participated in an experiment in which a "victim" choked on food. Ss were either alone with the victim, with 4 other same-sex confederates, or with 4 other mixed-sex confederates. Data on speed of helping and/or proportion of Ss helping show (a) more help by males than by females, (b) more help in S-alone conditions than in larger group conditions, and (c) more help by androgynous than by sex-typed Ss. The pattern of direct, indirect, or no help differed between sex-typed males and females but not between androgynous males and females. Questionnaire data support the notion of diffusion of responsibility for the group-size effect for helping. Several of the sex effects suggested that instrumental competence is the crucial variable in dealing with emergencies. Results also suggest that such competence is due to masculinity rather than sex per se. Findings provide substantial construct validation for androgyny theory and for the BSRI as a measure of androgyny. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender constancy and television viewing.

Cognitive developmental theory predicts that gender constant children bias their attention to same-sex TV characters compared with children who have not achieved gender constancy. The TV viewing at home of 24 5-year-old children was videotaped over 10 days. Half of the children were high in gender constancy. Gender constant boys biased their attention consistent with the hypothesis, and they viewed programs featuring a greater percentage of men as TV characters than did preconstant boys. An analysis of TV-viewing diaries of 313 5-yr-olds showed that gender constant boys viewed more programming intended for adults (especially sports and action programs) than did preconstant boys. Gender constant girls viewed more action programming than did preconstant girls. There was no association of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test IQ with level of gender constancy. Gender constancy is associated with multiple changes in TV-viewing behavior especially in boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and relationships: A developmental account.

This article argues that behavioral differentiation of the sexes is minimal when children are observed or tested individually. Sex differences emerge primarily in social situations, and their nature varies with the gender composition of dyads and groups. Children find same-sex play partners more compatible, and they segregate themselves into same-sex groups, in which distinctive interaction styles emerge. These styles are described. As children move into adolescence, the patterns they developed in their childhood same-sex groups are carried over into cross-sex encounters in which girls' styles put them at a disadvantage. Patterns of mutual influence can become more symmetrical in intimate male–female dyads, but the distinctive styles of the two sexes can still be seen in such dyads and are subsequently manifested in the roles and relationships of parenthood. The implications of these continuities are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations of conceptions of gender-role transgressions and gender constancy to gender-typed toy preferences.

Examined the relations among preschoolers' gender-typed toy choice, their judgments regarding cross-gender behavior, and gender constancy. Gender-typed toy choice of 87 preschool children was assessed with a measure in which children could base their choices not only on gender but also on attractiveness. Children's judgments regarding cross-gender behavior were measured, and their level of cognitive constancy was assessed. Results indicated that children's level of reasoning, but not their gender constancy level, was related to gender-typed toy preferences. Children with more flexible norms, who could distinguish between moral and social norms, exhibited less gender-typed toy choices than children with rigid norms. Results are discussed in terms of the relation between cognitive aspects of gender typing and gender-typed toy preference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social context as a determinant of sex differences in adults' attraction to infants.

70 male and 70 female undergraduates in same- or mixed-sex groups publicly or privately judged pictures of subhuman primate infants and adults for attractiveness. Sex differences were significant but the largest difference between males and females was found when judgments were made in public same-sex groups. Females reported greater attraction to infants relative to their attraction to adults, when judgments were made publicly in all-female groups. Males reported less attraction to infants in all-male public groups than when in private. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother–father–infant interaction: A naturalistic observational study.

Investigated infant preferences for interaction with mother vs father, similarities and differences in maternal and paternal behavior, and the influence of a 2nd parent's presence on parent–infant interaction. 40 middle-class families with 15-mo-old infants were observed in their own homes on 2 separate weekdays, for 2 hrs/day. Analysis revealed more similarities than differences in maternal and paternal behavior, limited preferences for interaction with same-sex children, and more active parenting when alone with the child than when in the presence of the spouse. Infant behavior was similarly influenced by social situation, with more social behavior directed toward each parent when alone with them. Finally, covariance analysis revealed that displayed general preferences for interaction with father were primarily a function of parental behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex typing and androgyny in dyadic interaction: Individual differences in responsiveness to physical attractiveness.

In an expansion of the "behavioral confirmation" paradigm developed by M. Snyder et al (see record 1979-26014-001), 12 sex-typed and 12 androgynous (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) undergraduates of each sex engaged in getting-acquainted telephone conversations with allegedly attractive and unattractive members of their own and the opposite sex. Although females were more socially responsive than males, the sexes neither differed in their responsiveness to physical attractiveness nor in their responsiveness to cross-sex and same-sex interaction. As hypothesized, sex-typed individuals were rated by blind judges as being significantly more responsive toward allegedly attractive than unattractive partners. In contrast, androgynous men did not differentiate on the basis of physical attractiveness, and androgynous women actually led allegedly unattractive targets to be rated as more socially attractive than allegedly attractive targets, thereby disconfirming the physical attractiveness stereotype. Because cultural definitions of physical attractiveness are different for men and women, results are discussed in the context of recent evidence that sex-typed individuals have a particular readiness to encode and organize information in terms of gender. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation.

Early hormones have been hypothesized to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviors. This study examined hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) aged 2.5–12 yrs (24 girls, 19 boys) and their relatives (16 girls, 25 boys). CAH girls preferred boys' toys and activities. They also had greater preference for boy playmates than controls, but this was largely attributable to 4 girls. CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls. Activity and playmate preferences were not related. It was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences; sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences; activity and playmate preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation; and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in interaction style as a product of perceived sex differences in competence.

Observed the interaction styles of 72 male and 72 female university students while they worked in 4-person, mixed-sex groups on a discussion task. In some groups, Ss were only given information about each other's names and gender. In this circumstance, males were perceived by themselves and other group members to be higher in competence than females. Males also engaged in a greater amount of active task behavior than females, who exhibited a greater amount of positive social behavior than males. In other groups, Ss' competency-based status was manipulated by providing false feedback that they were high or low relative to their group in intellectual and moral aptitude. High-status Ss were then perceived to be more competent and engaged in more active task and less positive social behavior than low status ones. In this condition, no sex differences were obtained on perceived competence or on active task or positive social behavior. Findings support the idea that the gender differences obtained in interaction when status was not specified were partially a function of Ss' belief that the sexes differ in competence. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Links Between Sex-Typed Time Use in Middle Childhood and Gender Development in Early Adolescence.

The authors studied sex-typing in the kinds (e.g., sports, handicrafts) and social contexts (same- vs. other-sex companions) of children's free time activities, and the links between sex-typed activities and gender development over 2 years. Participants were 200 White, working- and middle-class children (103 girls, 97 boys; mean age = 10.86 years). In annual home interviews, children rated their self-esteem, gender role attitudes and sex-typed personality qualities, academic interests, and school grades. During 7 nightly phone interviews each year, children reported on their activities. Boys were more sex-typed than girls in their peer activities, and children were least sex-typed in their activities with siblings. Sex-typed activities in middle childhood predicted individual differences in gender development in early adolescence (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of sex-typed play behavior in toddlers.

Conducted naturalistic observations of the play of 52 14–35 mo old toddlers (28 girls and 24 boys) with a set of socially stereotyped masculine, feminine, and neutral toys in a daycare setting over 14 mo. In addition, 2 potential influences on toy choice were investigated: parental expectations of play and Ss' gender knowledge. Results show that Ss played more often with toys stereotyped for their own gender than with the other toys. Girls' play with feminine toys increased with age, but boys' play with masculine toys did not vary with age, partly because even the youngest boys chose masculine toys frequently. Parents provided same-sex-typed toys for their children and made sex-typed predictions of their children's toy choices, but these measures were not clearly related to children's play. Cognitive change in understanding of gender was related to toddler boys' early sex-typed behavior. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Gender differences in interaction style and influence": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by L. L. Carli (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989, [Apr] Vol 56[4], 565–576). On page 567, the 3rd sentence in the Procedure section should read, "Half of the subjects were paired with same-sex partners and half with opposite-sex partners, resulting in 16 female pairs, 16 male pairs, and 32 mixed-sex pairs.' On page 568, the equation at the bottom of the left-hand column should read as follows: (Mfs?–?Mms?–?Mfm?+?Mmm)/((2MSe?+ &2MS′e)(1/n))?. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1989-25837-001.) Observed 128 Ss in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine effects of interaction on sex differences in influence. Ss discussed 2 topics on which they disagreed. During the 2nd discussion, 1 S in each pair was told to influence the other. Ss showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Change and consistency in social participation during early adulthood.

Reports a longitudinal study of the social interaction patterns of college students and adults. 113 adults (aged 26–31 yrs old) who had participated in similar studies in college kept detailed records of social activity for 2 wks. Three hypotheses were supported. First, from college to adulthood, opposite-sex socializing grew, whereas same-sex, mixed-sex, and group interactions decreased. Second, intimacy increased in adulthood, whereas satisfaction did not. Contrary to theories that focus on the formation of primary intimate relationships in early adulthood, intimacy increased in all interaction categories. Sex differences in the development of intimacy were also noted. Third, correlations revealed marked consistency over time in several variables. Implications of these findings for social development during early adulthood were examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's low affective perspective-taking ability is associated with low self-initiated pro-sociality.

Children's affective perspective-taking (APT) may provide a basis for efficient social interaction. The APT abilities of 83 children from 46 same-sex sibling pairs (ages 36 to 72 months, M = 52.8; SD = 12.6) were assessed through their reactions to affectively loaded story situations, and children whose APT ability (but not general cognitive abilities) was low relative to other children of their age were designated as Low-APT children. These children were not less pro-social when specific social cues or requests for pro-social behavior were given by experimenters. However, low APT may hinder children's ability to infer the need for pro-social action from relatively subtle social cues. Although 46.9% of nonlow APT children behaved pro-socially in at least two of three opportunities they were given to perform a self-initiated pro-social behavior, none of the children who were low on APT did. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)