Depression-related cognitions: Antecedent or consequence?

Measured depression-related cognitions and self-esteem in 998 adults who were followed for 1 yr. Ss completed a battery of tests including the Subjective Probability Questionnaire, Personal Beliefs Inventory, and Multidimensional Multiattributional Causality Scale. 63 Ss were depressed at the time of assessment, 85 became depressed during the follow-up period, and 115 had a history of depression but were not depressed at the initial assessment. Results are generally consistent with the hypothesis that depression-related cognitions arise concomitantly with an episode of depression. The currently depressed Ss differed from nondepressed Ss as expected; however, Ss who were to become depressed during the course of the study did not differ from controls on the cognitive measures. In addition, depressive cognitions did not seem to be permanent residuals of an episode. Although the depression-related cognitions did not predict future depression, they did predict improvement; depressed Ss with more negative cognitions were significantly less likely to improve during the follow-up period. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective, cognitive, and behavioral differences between high and low procrastinators.

Examined the relation between academic procrastination and academically related trait measures among 379 university students, including 261 females, 117 males, and 1 S who did not specify gender. 126 of the Ss participated in weekly assessment sessions. Ss completed a procrastination assessment scale, the Test Anxiety Scale, a self-control scale, and a trait measure of attributions of success and failure 3 times when midterm examinations approached. Results indicate that more than 40% of the Ss reported a high level of procrastination. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with delay in taking self-paced quizzes and was negatively correlated with grade point average (GPA). High procrastinators, particularly women, were significantly more likely than were low procrastinators to report more test anxiety, weekly state anxiety, and weekly anxiety-related physical symptoms. High procrastinators were significantly more likely than were low procrastinators to attribute success on examinations to external and unstable factors. As the examination deadline approached, both high and low procrastinators perceived examinations to be less difficult, less important, and less anxiety provoking; reported fewer factors to hinder study behavior; increased their study behavior; and decreased delay. Implications for anxiety reduction as a procrastination intervention are discussed. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-esteem, hypothetical explanations, and verbalization of expectancies on future performance.

A hypothetical explanation task was used to make success- or failure-related cognitions differentially available for 60 high self-esteem (HSE) and 60 low self-esteem (LSE) undergraduates. Ss wrote an explanation for either a hypothetical failure or success, or they wrote no explanation. Half of the Ss in each condition stated performance expectancies. The effects of these variables on subsequent performance were examined. Success explanations increased the performance of both HSE and LSE Ss, whereas failure explanations only decreased the performance of LSE Ss. A content analysis revealed that the content of failure explanations, but not success explanations, was related to self-esteem and subsequent performance. These effects were more pronounced for Ss who stated expectancies, and expectancies were more highly correlated with performance in the explanation conditions than in the no-explanation control condition. Results are discussed in terms of current self-esteem theory and the cognitive processes associated with generating causal scenarios for success and failure, expectations, and performance. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Daydreaming and curiosity in gifted and average children and adolescents.

307 gifted (CA 10–16 yrs; mean IQ 138.8) and 192 age-matched average Ss (IQ 100.8) completed the Imaginal Processes Inventory, the Children's Reactive Curiosity Scale, and the Academic Curiosity Scale. Demographic and IQ data were obtained from Ss' school records. Factor analysis of the data resulted in factors indicative of individual difference dimensions in daydreaming content and curiosity independent of demographic and IQ factors. Analyses of factor scores by grade level revealed decreasing linear trends over grade on the Guilt and Fear of Failure Daydreaming factor in both groups. Increasing trends over grade level were found for the Curiosity and Positive-Constructive Daydreaming factors in the gifted group. Average Ss showed a developmental decline in curiosity. Compared to average Ss, gifted Ss had higher Curiosity factor scores, lower Guilt and Fear of Failure Daydreaming scores, and higher scores on the Intelligence and Family Enrichment factor. The validity of the distinction between intellectual power and intellectual styles and the development of intellectual styles are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manipulation of self-esteem as a determinant of mood of elated and depressed women.

Tested the theory that self-esteem is a determinant of elation-depression. Changes in self-esteem were induced by having Ss read positive or negative self-evaluative statements. 140 female college students were selected on the basis of extreme scores of characteristic elation and depression and on the basis of suggestibility and were assigned to 1 of 5 treatment or control groups. The induction of positive vs negative cognitions produced significant differences in elation-depression on multiple measures. Characteristically elated and depressed Ss were able to take on opposite mood states. This study suggests that a determinant of depression is evaluative self-statements, supports the utility of cognitive therapy for depressives, and demonstrates a potentially useful technique for inducing more appropriate self-evaluations. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Irrational beliefs and reactions to failure.

Predicted that 30 undergraduates with a strong tendency to endorse irrational beliefs, as measured by the Irrational Beliefs Test, would be more emotionally upset following a failure experience than would 30 Ss with little tendency to endorse irrational beliefs. Emotional upset was measured by the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (Anxiety) and Depression Adjective Check Lists and by performance decrements on digit-symbol coding and anagrams tasks. Results conform to the predicted relationship between irrational beliefs and emotional upset. High irrational Ss did not report more anxiety or depression than low irrational Ss, nor did the high irrational Ss show performance decrements following failure. Evidence concerning the validity of the Irrational Beliefs Test is reviewed. (French summary) (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Irrational beliefs and the arousal of emotional distress.

Evaluated the extent to which endorsement of irrational beliefs as measured by the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) was associated with subjective, physiological, and cognitive indices (e.g., Trait scale of the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory and Fear of Negative Evaluation Questionnaire scores) of emotional distress in response to a stressful event delivered in a controlled experiment. 62 undergraduates served as Ss. Beliefs relevant to the stressor were more associated with negative cognitions than was either a belief less relevant to the stressor or general irrational thinking. However, a measure of the fear of negative evaluation was more frequently associated with measures of distress than were irrational beliefs. The equivalent and perhaps greater predictive utility of a more parsimonious, less inferential individual difference variable was interpreted as challenging the construct validity of the IBT and perhaps questioning the necessity of postulating the existence of irrational beliefs in accounts of the arousal of emotional distress. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive thinking and depression: Relations with personality and social resources.

We studied depression, depressive cognitions, social supports, and self-esteem in a sample of 68 spouse-caregivers of patients with Alzheimer's Disease in an attempt to identify possible buffering mechanisms of the latter 2 variables. Specifically, we hypothesized that the well-known relation of depressive cognitions to depression would vary as a function of satisfaction with social supports and with level of self-esteem. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses conducted to predict depression revealed significant and independent main effects for depressive cognitions, social supports, and self-esteem, with depressive cognitions associated with higher depression and the other 2 variables associated with reduced depression. In addition, the relation of depressive cognitions with depression varied substantially depending on the level of social supports; caregivers with high levels of depressive cognitions had high levels of depression only if social supports were low. Self-esteem and depressive cognitions showed a similar interaction, but it failed to reach significance. Analyses to determine whether self-esteem and social supports were directly associated with lower depressive cognitive activity yielded a main effect for self-esteem only. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributional versus preattributional variables in self-esteem and depression: A comparison and test of learned helplessness theory.

Tested, in 2 samples of undergraduates (92 in Exp I and 55 in Exp II), predictions made according to the attributional reformulation of learned helplessness theory concerning the cognitive determinants of low self-esteem and depression. Real and hypothetical life events were used. Ss were administered the Beck Depression Inventory, a checklist of life events, and a self-esteem scale. As predicted, internal attributions for hypothetical success and failure were correlated with self-esteem, but there was an unexpected correlation with global attributions for negative outcomes. Two preattributional variables, consensus and consistency judgments, were also related to self-esteem and depression. In contrast to learned helplessness theory, a path analysis indicated that these variables were not attributionally mediated. Consensus judgment was as strong a predictor of depression as the number of recent distressing life events that Ss had experienced. Other evidence that links depression to perceived low consensus is described, and a possible etiological role for this variable is outlined. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal attributions and types of depression in college students: The learned helplessness model revisited.

Tested the relation between attributions and types of depression (with and without low self-esteem) postulated by reformulated learned helplessness theory vs. an alternative (R. Janoff-Bulman; see record 1981-01320-001). 334 Ss completed the Beck Depression Inventory, Attributional Style Questionnaire, and Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale. Scores above 8 on the Beck were considered depressed. A median split on the Janis-Field scale divided Ss into those with and without low self-esteem. Clearest support was found for Janoff-Bulman's formulations. Depressed Ss with low self-esteem made more internal characterological attributions for bad events than the other groups. Nondepressed Ss made more internal behavioral attributions than depressed Ss. The implications for counseling and future research on depression and learned helplessness are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond the uniformity myth: A comparison of academically successful and unsuccessful test-anxious college students.

72 college students were administered a battery of tests including the Test Anxiety Scale, Worry-Emotionality Scale, Fear of Negative Evaluation, and Academic Self-Evaluation Questionnaire. Two levels of test anxiety were crossed with 2 levels of academic performance in a factorial design. High-anxious Ss differed from low-anxious Ss on traditional cognitive and somatic indicators of test anxiety, but not on any measure of study or test-taking skills. Ss with high grades, regardless of their anxiety level, scored higher on measures of academic skills than Ss in both "low" performing groups. A measure assessing ability to control negative internal dialog revealed significant differences only between performance groups, implicating cognitive control as a factor influencing academic performance. Expectations that Ss had about the amount of material they needed to know to be prepared for examinations were related to test anxiety, especially among successful but anxious Ss. Implications are noted for designing interventions specifically tailored to the needs of 2 types of test-anxious students: those who perform well in school and those who are less successful. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of a geriatric scale of hopelessness: Implications for counseling and intervention with the depressed elderly.

Evaluated hopelessness, depression, and self-esteem in 138 65–80 yr old subclinically depressed people drawn from community settings. In Phase 1, a factor analysis was performed on the contents of interviews with 60 Ss. Analysis yielded 4 distinct factors of geriatric hopelessness. In Phase 2, a geriatric hopelessness scale (included as a table) was developed on the basis of hopelessness themes suggested by factor analysis and was administered to 78 Ss. Results of this validity study show that Ss who scored high on the geriatric hopelessness scale had significantly higher depression and lower self-esteem scores than Ss who scored low on the scale. It is suggested that the same correlational patterns that exist in youth and adults between hopelessness and depression continue into old age. It is further suggested that identification of clients' latent themes of hopelessness would help counselors obtain more focused insight into clients' pessimism and negative outlooks and would provide the particular kind of encouragement and reinforcement needed. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

You're changed if you do and changed if you don't: Mechanisms underlying paradoxical interventions.

We examined 2 mechanisms of change under paradoxical interventions: reactance and increased sense of self-efficacy. Procrastinating college students were randomly assigned to either paradoxical or self-control interventions. Effective study time and perceived self-efficacy were measured before and after treatment. In Study 1 nonverbal measure of initial reactance was employed. In Study 2 reactance was experimentally manipulated. Under paradoxical interventions, Ss higher on initial reactance benefited more from therapy than did Ss with low reactance; nonreactant Ss did not increase their effective study time, but they did improve in perceived efficacy to control their procrastination; increased study time was negatively correlated with increased self-efficacy. In self-control treatment, increased study time was accompanied by increased self-efficacy. Paradoxical interventions seem to reduce procrastination through the mechanism of reactance in some clients, whereas in others they lead to a cognitive change, possibly mediating a subsequent behavior change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive correlates of teacher stress and depressive symptoms: Implications for attributional models of depression.

Conducted a test of the reformulated learned helplessness (attributional) model of depression (L. Y. Abramson et al, see record 1979-00305-001). Ss were 75 urban high school teachers who were experiencing high levels of teaching-related stress. Ss were administered Bruno's Teacher Stress Inventory, the Center for Epidemiological Studies—Depression scale, and a specially developed attribution and cognition questionnaire. Results indicate that the teachers experienced a high degree of stress-related depressive symptomatology. The depressive behavior was significantly related to cognitions regarding the consequences of the stressful circumstances, but contrary to the reformulation of learned helplessness, depression was not related to causal attributions regarding these situations. Results suggest the need both for refinements in cognitive theories of depression to distinguish between enduring mood states and transient depressive symptoms arising universally in certain situations, and for the study of depression-related cognitions in naturalistic settings. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Level and stability of self-esteem in relation to academic behavior of second graders.

The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale was administered to 87 White, Black, and Mexican-American 2nd graders on 2 occasions (4 mo apart). Stability of self-esteem for each S was calculated by determining the agreement among item responses on the 2 occasions. Ss estimated their own reading ability, and their percentile scores on the reading subtest of a standardized achievement test were collected. Results indicate that level and stability of self-esteem were not related to one another, that stability of self-esteem was related to the accuracy of Ss' perceptions of their academic ability, and that both level and stability of self-esteem were positively correlated with academic achievement. However, only stability of self-esteem remained predictive of achievement once ethnic differences were controlled for. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychological refractory period: Evidence for age differences in attentional time-sharing.

Reports 2 psychological refractory period (PRP) experiments in which the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between Task 1 and 2 was 150, 250, 600, and 1,100 msec for both younger and older adults. H. Pashler's (1994) response-selection bottleneck theory predicts that SOA manipulations should not affect Task 1 performance, but that reaction time (RT) for Task 2 should increase as the SOA between the 2 tasks decreases (i.e., the classical PRP effect). In Exp 1, older adults showed a larger PRP effect, although Task 1 RT was affected by SOA, suggesting that Ss were grouping their responses on some trials. That is, Ss were holding their response for Task 1 until they had completed processing Task 2, and then they responded to both tasks almost simultaneously. However, a subset of Ss who showed no evidence of response grouping on Task 1 continued to show a larger PRP effect for older adults on Task 2. In Exp 2, older adults continued to show a larger PRP effect for Task 2, and Task 1 performance was unaffected by SOA. Findings provide evidence that older adults exhibit a decrement in time-sharing at the response-selection stage of processing. Results suggest that attentional time-sharing needs to be added to the list of topics examined in aging research on varieties of attention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of cognitive style in bulimia nervosa and depression

This study investigated the global and specific cognitive style associated with bulimia nervosa. Three groups of women (women with bulimia nervosa, women with major depression, and controls) completed measures of eating disorder severity, depression, dysfunctional cognitions and irrational beliefs. The control group was found to report significantly lower levels of cognitive distortions and irrational beliefs overall than both women with bulimia nervosa and women with depression. However, no difference was found between the latter two groups. Furthermore, the pattern of individual cognitions and beliefs was exactly the same. When depression was statistically controlled, cognitive style no longer differentiated between the control group and two clinical groups. These results have implications for improving the effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy for bulimia nervosa.     

Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children.

The Hoplessness Scale for Children was developed and administered to 66 8–13 yr old children along with the Children's Depression Inventory, Bellevue Index of Depression, Depression Symptom Checklist, and the Self-Esteem Inventory. As predicted, Ss who scored high on the Hopelessness Scale showed significantly more severe depression and lower self-esteem than those who scored low on the scale. Ss who evinced suicidal attempt or ideation, independently assessed at intake diagnosis, showed greater hopelessness than Ss with no such intent. Suicidal intent was more consistently correlated with hopelessness than with depression, a finding parallel to results obtained with adults. Overall, findings suggest that negative expectations toward oneself and the future can be assessed in children and are related both to depression and suicidal intent. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response to stress, cognitive coping strategies, and the Type A behavior pattern.

Examined (a) whether Type A (coronary-prone) individuals respond with more psychophysiological arousal to threat to self-esteem than to threat of shock, (b) whether differences between Type A and Type B individuals in psychophysiological responses are greater under high than low stress, and (c) whether Type A and Type B individuals differ in how they cognitively cope with stress. 84 male college students participated. Results indicate that Type A Ss manifested higher pulse rates across all conditions and greater systolic and diastolic blood pressures in response to threat to self-esteem than did Type B Ss. Type A Ss also employed more suppression in response to both threat to self-esteem and threat of shock and employed more denial in response to threat to self-esteem than did Type B Ss. Implications regarding the means by which Type A behavior increases the risk of premature heart disease are discussed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)