A rural hydrogen transportation test bed

The Missouri University Science and Technology (Missouri S&T), through a hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle evaluation participation agreement with the Ford Motor Company, is in the process of establishing a commuter bus service and hydrogen refueling at a station in rural Missouri near Ft. Leonard Wood (FLW). Initiated by a request from the U.S. Army Maneuver Support Center at FLW, Missouri S&T is leading the effort to launch the commuter service between FLW and the neighboring towns of Rolla and Lebanon, Missouri each of which are located approximately 40 km from the military base on Interstate-44 highway. The broad research, training, and education agenda for the rural hydrogen transportation test bed is to develop, demonstrate, evaluate, and promote safe hydrogen-based technologies in a real-world environment. With funds provided by the Defense Logistics Agency through the Air Force Research Laboratory, this hydrogen initiative will build and operate a hydrogen fueling facility that includes on-site generation of hydrogen by means of steam–methane reformation.     

Design of a hydrogen community

This paper discusses the conceptual design of a scalable and reproducible hydrogen fueling station at Santa Monica, California. Hydrogen production using renewable energy sources such as biogas, which accounts for 100% of the total production, has been discussed. The fueling station consists of a direct fuel cell (DFC) 300 fuel cell for on-site generation of 136 kg/day of hydrogen and 300 kW of electric power, five hydrogen storage tanks (storage capacity of 198 kg of H₂ at 350 and 700 bar), four compressors which assist in dispensing 400 kg of hydrogen in 14 h, two hydrogen dispensers operating at 350 bar and 700 bar independently and a SAE J2600 compliant hydrogen nozzle. Potential early market customers for hydrogen fuel cells and their daily fuel requirements have been computed. The safety codes, potential failure modes and the methods to mitigate risks have been explained. A well-to-wheel analysis is performed to compare the emissions and the total energy requirements of conventional gasoline and fuel cell vehicles.     

Off-grid hybrid renewable energy system with hydrogen storage for South African rural community health clinic

Most inhabitants of rural communities in Africa lack access to clean and reliable electricity. This has deprived the rural dwellers access to modern healthcare delivery. In this paper, an off-grid renewable energy system consisting of solar PV and wind turbine with hydrogen storage scheme has been explored to meet the electrical energy demands of a health clinic. The health clinic proposed is a group II with 10 beds located in a typical village in South Africa. First, the wind and solar energy resources of the village were analysed. Thereafter, the microgrid architecture that would meet the energy demand of the clinic (18.67 kWh/day) was determined. Some of the key results reveal that the average annual wind speed at 60 m anemometer height and solar irradiation of the village are 7.9 m/s and 4.779 kWh/m²/day, respectively. The required architecture for the clinic composes of 40 kW solar PV system, 3 numbers of 10 kW wind turbines, 8.6 kW fuel cell, 25 kW electrolyser and 40 kg hydrogen tank capacity. The capital cost of the microgrid was found to be $177,600 with a net present cost of $206,323. The levelised cost of energy of the system was determined to be 2.34 $/kWh. The project has a breakeven grid extension distance of 8.81 km. Since this distance is less than the nearest grid extension distance of 21.35 km, it is established that the proposed renewable energy microgrid with a hydrogen storage system is a viable option for the rural community health clinic.     

A plan for active development of LH2 for use in aircraft

This statement reviews the probable future fuel problem facing the commercial air transport industry and suggests an innovative course of action. The plan involves creation of an experimental airline equipped with four liquid hydrogen-fueled, wide-body aircraft flying commercial cargo on a regularly scheduled basis between the United States, Western Europe and the Middle East. Development of facilities incorporating advanced technologies for production and liquefaction of hydrogen at each of four major air terminals is an integral part of the plan.     

The Zimbabwe UNDP-G.E.F solar project for rural household and community use in Zimbabwe

The Global Environmental Facility (G.E.F.) Solar Photovoltaics for Household and Community Use in Zimbabwe is funded by the UNDP Global Environmental Facility which funds new approaches to reducing pollution and global warming. The Zimbabwe G.E.F. Project is designed to promote use of solar photovoltaic (PV) lighting systems in rural households, communities, co-operatives and small scale farms. The project is expected to realize 9 000 lighting systems during the period 1994 – 1997. While this project engages in rural electrification and thereby uplifting the living standards of the rural people, it nonetheless addresses the problem of global warming by offering an environmentally benign solar energy resource. Other objectives of the project include enhancement and upgrading of the indigenous solar manufacturing companies, development of an expanded solar market in the rural areas and a financing mechanism, training of technicians and end users. The project's expected are unfolding gradually. There has been access to imported solar components, a financial credit scheme has been established, community participation through Rural District Councils, NGOs and cooperatives is being encouraged. Participation of Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) in the project has been worked out. Public awareness campaigns are being held through mass media, exhibitions and fairs. The project is working to meet the set objectives in conjunction with electricity utility, installers, end-users, manufacturers, finance houses. NGOs, donors and community based organizations.     

Preliminary observations of a continuous flow solar disinfection system for a rural community in Kenya

This project involves the design and installation of a continuous flow reactor which uses solar radiation, an abundant resource in most sub-Saharan countries, to disinfect water supplies. The system was installed at a rural village in Kenya to disinfect surface water collected at a recently constructed micro-dam. The solar reactor uses CPC reflectors which reflect both direct and diffuse solar radiation onto clear pipes through which the requisite water supply flows. The reaction kinetics for the full-scale design had been determined on a variety of pathogenic micro-organisms under both artificial and real sunlight in controlled conditions. The community fully participated in the planning, installation and subsequent operation of the system. The preliminary water quality results indicate that the system is providing a safe source of water for the community. The installation, commissioning and initial use of the system highlights the critical need for community involvement and approval if such interventions are going to be successful in rural areas, alongside the requirements for strategic and technical support.     

氢能经济时代悄然到来国际社会关注氢能投资

２００２年４月初在美国首都华盛顿召开了氢能投资讨论会，来自１０多个国家的近百位科学界、企业界和金融投资专家就投资氢能展开了讨论。两个月后，更大规模的氢能盛会———第１４届世界氢能大会在加拿大蒙特利尔召开，近千名学者与企业界代表就氢能的研发与制备、贮输与应用、氢能与环境、政策、标准，氢能经济以及国际技术合作与交流等方方面面的问题进行了交流。笔者有幸参加了这两次会议。与世界氢能大会同步举办的展览会还展示了燃料电池（主要是PEM）、电解制氢、氢能汽车、甲醇燃料和贮氢技术及产品。企业界在预测氢能汽车上市…     

Life cycle assessment of a community hydroelectric power system in rural Thailand

Rural electrification and the provision of low cost, low emission technology in developing countries require decision makers to be well informed on the costs, appropriateness and environmental credentials of all available options. While cost and appropriateness are often shaped by observable local considerations, environmental considerations are increasingly influenced by global concerns which are more difficult to identify and convey to all stakeholders.Life cycle assessment is an iterative process used to analyse a product or system. This study iteratively applies life cycle assessment (LCA) to a 3 kW community hydroelectric system located in Huai Kra Thing (HKT) village in rural Thailand. The cradle to grave analysis models the hydropower scheme’s construction, operation and end of life phases over a period of twenty years and includes all relevant equipment, materials and transportation.The study results in the enumeration of the environmental credentials of the HKT hydropower system and highlights the need to place environmental performance, and LCA itself, in a proper context. In the broadest sense, LCA results for the HKT hydropower system are found to reflect a common trend reported in hydropower LCA literature, namely that smaller hydropower systems have a greater environmentally impact per kWh – perform less well environmentally - than larger systems. Placed within a rural electrification context, however, the HKT hydropower system yields better environmental and financial outcomes than diesel generator and grid connection alternatives.     

A review on current trends in potential use of metal-organic framework for hydrogen storage

Hydrogen can be a promising clean energy carrier for the replenishment of non-renewable fossil fuels. The set back of hydrogen as an alternative fuel is due to its difficulties in feasible storage and safety concerns. Current hydrogen adsorption technologies, such as cryo-compressed and liquefied storage, are costly for practical applications. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline materials that have structural versatility, high porosity and surface area, which can adsorb hydrogen efficiently. Hydrogen is adsorbed by physisorption on the MOFs through weak van der Waals force of attraction which can be easily desorbed by applying suitable heat or pressure. The strategies to improve the MOFs surface area, hydrogen uptake capacities and parameters affecting them are studied. Hydrogen spill over mechanism is found to provide high-density storage when compared to other mechanisms. MOFs can be used as proton exchange membranes to convert the stored hydrogen into electricity and can be used as electrodes for the fuel cells. In this review, we addressed the key strategies that could improve hydrogen storage properties for utilizing hydrogen as fuel and opportunities for further growth to meet energy demands.     

Industry perceptions and community perspectives on advancing a hydrogen economy in Australia

Investment in the hydrogen economy is increasing at unprecedented rates. To ensure a swift transition, understanding the diverse perspectives of and how to work collaboratively with all sectors of society is needed. In doing so, how industry stakeholders understand community perceptions and view their role in mediating perceived issues needs to be better understood.Therefore, this study aims to investigate how industry assumptions of community perspectives of hydrogen technologies compare and contrast with those in an Australian context. Using inductive thematic analysis, this exploratory project analysed 45 publicly-available submissions received in 2019 for the National Hydrogen Strategy from the industry perspective, and 62 public submissions received in 2019–2020 for the Victorian Green Hydrogen Discussion Paper from the community perspective.Results show that industry stakeholder assumptions about community concerns tended to reflect specific technical issues as opposed to those reported by the community: moral obligations to climate, environment, and future generations. Findings indicate that further work is needed to better align industry understandings and characterisations of the broader public.Several practical implications for the energy sector are noted. First, hydrogen is unlikely to be immune to community concerns faced by other energy projects; therefore, a robust plan for community inclusion that considers a range of complex, contextual factors is required. Second, there is an opportunity for the formation of a more collaborative approach, which integrates industry and community goals and values. Third, industry and government may benefit from viewing the community as an under-utilised, valuable partnership or resource rather than an object to be managed as part of a development process. We contend that a collaborative framework, including approaches such as co-design and shared identity formation may be critical to furthering the hydrogen agenda.     

The use of hydrogen in the rural sector in Venezuela: Technical and financial study of the storage phase

The aim of this work is to develop and evaluate a mathematical model for the process of storing hydrogen obtained from hydroelectricity via electrolysis, for use as an energetic vector in rural areas of Venezuela. Following an exhaustive bibliographical review of the subject, pressurized containers were chosen as the most appropriate means of storage. The components of the compressed H₂ gas storage systems to be modelled are 1) the Compression Unit, CU, and 2) the Storage Unit, SU. With this information and by using non-linear regression methods, we developed a mathematical model with which to study the behaviour of the main variables involved in the storage process: the quantity of H₂ to be stored, the storage pressure, energy consumption, the size of the compressor, and the unit cost of the containers. In structural terms, the mathematical model comprises an energy model and a financial model. The results show that there is a range of operating conditions with a minimal overall cost, as a result of the behaviour of the investment cost, which define how the total costs evolve.     

Recent progress in the use of hydrogen as a fuel for internal combustion engines

Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines (H₂ICEs) have been the topic of research for many decades, and contemporary reviews have surveyed the relevant literature. Because of a number of relatively large R&D projects that have been ongoing recently, much progress has been made that is worth reporting. Specifically, this paper reviews the advancements made in plotting the possibilities offered by direct injection of hydrogen, in-cylinder heat transfer, modeling and combustion strategies (on an engine as well as vehicle level). These efforts have resulted in impressive efficiency numbers, both at peak and part load operation, while keeping emissions far below regulatory limits and reaching satisfactory specific power outputs. New demonstration vehicles have been put on the road showing the relatively low barriers (on a vehicle level) to introduce hydrogen engined transportation and these are briefly described. The paper discusses the merits of H₂ICEs but also what makes them potentially unfit as a realistic alternative. Finally, the paper concludes with the main areas of research that require further efforts.     

Energy use in the rural areas of India: setting up a rural energy data base

Aggregating and forecasting demand are crucial parts of energy planning. While a large number of energy consumption surveys have been conducted in the past in the rural energy sector of India, the lack of sufficient data and its compilation, coupled with doubt about the quality of data, has made the task extremely difficult. This paper summarizes our recent effort to compile, computerize and analyze data from 638 village energy consumption surveys covering over 39,000 households, carried out by different organisations between 1985 and 1989. The details of the level of information provided in the survey reports, area of survey, land use pattern, asset ownership, etc., of the collated studies are presented. Results based on the analysis of the energy consumption data compiled are then discussed. The national average for rural domestic thermal energy consumption (excluding water and space heating) estimated through this work (629 kcal or 2.63 MJ per capita daily) is much similar to the rural domestic thermal energy requirement assumed in most energy planning exercises in India in the past. The useful thermal energy consumption varies from 325 to 1065 kcal/cap/d (1.36-4.46 MJ/cap/d) in the East Coast Plain and Hills and the Eastern Himalayan Regions, respectively. Reconfirming the predominance of firewood, the data reveals that the contribution of firewood to the domestic thermal energy consumption has remained at about 58% over the last three decades; dungcake and agricultural residues contribute almost equally in the remaining share. At the national level, our estimates indicate that at least 180 million tonnes of firewood, 40 million tonnes of dungcakes and 30 million tonnes of agricultural residues were consumed in the rural sector for meeting the domestic thermal energy requirement in 1991. The paper also compares the estimates with those based on other surveys in India.     

Building a plan for HVDC

Large amounts of study, modeling, and planning are necessary prior to the successful construction and integration of an HVDC facility. Feasibility studies are first conducted to determine the need for network controllability, necessary for ensuring system security, transmitting power over long distances, or interconnecting asynchronous systems. This planning and integration process has produced successful results in three HVDC installations in the northeastern United States, which are discussed in this article. The article also presents several examples of plans for HVDC expansion in the Western interconnection     

A study on hydrogen storage by use of cryoadsorbents

This paper reports investigations on the techniques and economics of hydrogen storage by means of cryoadsorption. Also a comparison with alternative storage methods is included. The hydrogen storage capacity of several adsorbents in the temperature range 65–150 K has been investigated experimentally. Based on these data, economics and operating conditions for minimum total costs of the system are calculated. Utilization-factor and capacity-factor parameters are shown to be decisive for outlining the favourable ranges of application for competitive hydrogen storage methods.     

Simulation of PV-Wind-hybrid systems combined with hydrogen storage for rural electrification

Since many years, engineering, research and development of hybrid systems for rural electrification are strongly supported by computer simulations. Different software packages have been used according to the required level of details along with the progress of the project HYRESS. For the development of optimal system control and load/energy management strategy, different simulation models from APL (Alternative Power Library) have been used for a Hybrid PV-wind-hydrogen system that will be installed in the Essaouira region in Morocco. This library provides models developed by IWES for the simulation of regenerative power supply systems and it is used to investigate the integration of a hydrogen storage path in hybrid system operation.     

农村秸秆与粪便发酵产氢的研究

选取10种常见的农业有机废弃物:稻草、玉米秆、小麦秆、大麦秆、蚕豆秆、黄豆秆等秸秆以及猪粪、牛粪、鸡粪、马粪等粪便作为原料,采用批量发酵工艺,控制发酵料液的pH值在适宜范围内,进行厌氧发酵产氢的研究.试验结果表明,在厌氧条件下,采用批量发酵工艺,控制发酵温度为25℃左右,以农作物秸秆、畜禽粪便为原料,以沼气发酵后的厌氧活性污泥为天然产氢菌种的来源,以乳酸调控发酵料液pH值为4.5～5.5,可以获得洁净能源--氢气.     

Geothermal energy use in hydrogen liquefaction

We propose the use of geothermal energy for hydrogen liquefaction, and investigate three possible cases for accomplishing such a task including (1) using geothermal output work as the input for a liquefaction cycle; (2) using geothermal heat in an absorption refrigeration process to precool the gas before the gas is liquefied in a liquefaction cycle; and (3) using part of the geothermal heat for absorption refrigeration to precool the gas and part of the geothermal heat to produce work and use it in a liquefaction cycle (i.e., cogeneration). A binary geothermal power plant is considered for power production while the precooled Linde–Hampson cycle is considered for hydrogen liquefaction. A liquid geothermal resource is considered and both ideal (i.e., reversible) and non-ideal (e.g., irreversible) system operations are analyzed. A procedure for such an investigation is developed and appropriate performance parameters are defined. Also, the effects of geothermal water temperature and gas precooling temperature on system performance parameters are studied. The results show that there is a significant amount of energy savings potential in the liquefaction work requirement as a result of precooling the gas in a geothermal absorption cooling system. Using geothermal energy in a cogeneration scheme (power production and absorption cooling) also provides significant advantages over the use of geothermal energy for power production only.     

Proposal for a possible use of fusion power for hydrogen production within this century

The article describes the possibility of building a commercial fusion power reactor before the turn of the century. The main elements of the system proposed are known from the PACER Project which is based on the explosive DD-fusion process. Since practically, only existing technology has to be applied, it seems that PACER offers the quickest way to peacefully harnessing fusion energy on a large scale. The article shows how such reactors could be embedded in a series of energy parks, scattered all around the world, to meet the energy requirements of a “30 TW world” in the forthcoming non-fossil era.Furthermore, the article addresses the breeding of fissile materials and especially the production of electrolytic hydrogen. In the latter case, large amount of deuterium can be produced as a by-product in the electrolytic process. The original proposal here is that only a small part of this deuterium must be recycled to get enough fusion fuel for the DD-energy source.The system can be designed in such a way that either the heat alone, the bred fuel alone, or both together could be used. Reactors based on the described DD-fusion principle of delivering both bred fissile fuel and hydrogen gas are particularly well suited for remote sites.“If you look into the seeds of time and say which grain will grow and which will not, speak then to me”(William Shakespeare, Macbeth)     

Decision-making between a grid extension and a rural renewable off-grid system with hydrogen generation

Most populations in rural Africa have no access to electricity, in this study, a comparative analysis between grid extension and the implementation of renewable off-grid hybrid power system is carried out. The objective of the study is to determine the best feasible option. Napier, a farming village in the Western Cape province of South Africa was selected as the site for the comparative analysis and HOMER PRO software was used to develop an optimal system using the wind and solar resources of the selected site. The load profile considered in the analysis includes lighting, cooking and hot water demands. The best feasible option is determined based on the Net Present Cost of each feasible scenario. Sensitivity analysis on the current cost and the projected cost of hydrogen storage w conducted to observe the impact of the cost of hydrogen storage on the renewable off-grid system cost of energy.