Molten-salt fuel cells—Technical and economic challenges

This paper presents a personal view of the status and research needs of the MCFC and other molten-salt fuel cells. After an overview of current MCFC performance, compared with performance and cost of other fuel cells, improvements in power density and lifetime as well as cost reduction are identified as key priorities to accelerate the commercialization of the MCFC. In spite of its unfavorable public image (compared to, in particular, PEMFC and planar SOFC) MCFC technology has progressed steadily and cost reduction has been significant. Large-scale commercialization, especially in the distributed generation and cogeneration market, remains a possibility but its chances are highly dependent on a forceful and consistent energy policy, for example taking into account the externalities associated with various modes of electric power production from fossil fuels. In spite of steady improvements in performance, important defects in fundamental knowledge remain about wetting properties, oxygen reduction kinetics, corrosion paths and control mechanisms. These must be addressed to stimulate further simplification of design and find solutions to lifetime issues. Recently, alternative concepts of molten-salt fuel cells have been capturing attention. The direct carbon fuel cell (DCFC), reviving an old concept, has caught the attention of energy system analysts and some important advances have been made in this technology. Direct CO and CH₄ oxidation have also been a focus of study. Finally, the potential of nanotechnology for high-temperature fuel cells should not be a priori excluded.     

Energy,exergy, and environmental (3E) assessments of an integrated molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), Stirling engine and organic Rankine cycle (ORC) cogeneration system fed by a biomass-fueled gasifier

In this paper, a novel syngas-fed combined cogeneration plant, integrating a biomass gasifier, a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) unit, a Stirling engine, and an organic Rankine cycle (ORC), is introduced and thermodynamically analyzed to recognize its potentials compared to the previous solo/combined systems. For the proposed system, energetic, exergetic as well as environmental evaluations are performed. Based on the results, the gasifier and the fuel cell have a significant contribution to the exergy destruction of the system. Through a parametric study, the current density and the stack temperature difference are known as the main effective factors on the plant performance. Meanwhile, dividing the whole system into three sub-models, i.e., model (1): power production plant including the gasifier and MCFC without including Stirling engine, HRSG, and ORC unit, model (2): the cogeneration system without ORC unit, and model (3): the whole cogeneration system, an environmental impact assessment is carried out regarding CO₂ emission. Considering paper as biomass revealed that maximum value of exergy efficiency is 50.18% with CO₂ emissions of 28.9 × 10⁻² t.MWh⁻¹ which compared to the solo MCFC system indicates 28.40% increase and 13.3 × 10⁻² t.MWh⁻¹ decrease in exergy efficiency and CO₂ emission, respectively.     

Performance analysis of a 5 kW PEMFC with a natural gas reformer

Power systems based on fuel cells have been considered for residential and commercial applications in energy Distributed Generation (DG) markets. In this work we present an experimental analysis of a power generation system formed by a 5 kW proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) unit and a natural gas reformer (fuel processor) for hydrogen production. The performance analysis developed simultaneously the energy and economic viewpoints and enabled the determination of the best technical and economic conditions of this energy generation power plant, and the best operating strategies, enabling the optimization of the overall performance of the stationary cogeneration fuel cell unit. It was determined the electrical performance of the cogeneration system in function of the design and operational power plant parameters. Additionally, it was verified the influence of the activation conditions of the fuel cell electrocatalytic system on the system performance. It also appeared that the use of hydrogen produced from the natural gas catalytic reforming provided the system operation in excellent electrothermal stability conditions resulting in increase of the energy conversion efficiency and of the economicity of the cogeneration power plant.     

MCFC-based CO2 capture system for small scale CHP plants

Carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere are considered among the main reasons of the greenhouse effect. The largest share of CO₂ is emitted by power plants using fossil fuels. Nowadays there are several technologies to capture CO₂ from power plants' exhaust gas but each of them consumes a significant part of the electric power generated by the plant. The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) can be used as concentrator of CO₂, due to the chemical reactions that occurs in the cell stack: carbon dioxide entering into the cathode side is transported to the anode side via CO₃⁼ ions and is finally concentrated in the anodic exhaust. MCFC systems can be integrated in existing power plants (retro fitting) to separate CO₂ in the exhaust gas and, at the same time, produce additional energy. The aim of this study is to find a feasible system design for medium scale cogeneration plants which are not considered economically and technically interesting for existing technologies for carbon capture, but are increasing in numbers with respect to large size power plants. This trend, if confirmed, will increase number of medium cogeneration plants with consequent benefit for both MCFC market for this application and effect on global CO₂ emissions. System concept has been developed in a numerical model, using AspenTech engineering software. The model simulates a plant, which separates CO₂ from a cogeneration plant exhaust gases and produces electric power. Data showing the effect of CO₂ on cell voltage and cogenerator exhaust gas composition were taken from experimental activities in the fuel cell laboratory of the University of Perugia, FCLab, and from existing CHP plants. The innovative aspect of this model is the introduction of recirculation to optimize the performance of the MCFC. Cathode recirculation allows to decrease the carbon dioxide utilization factor of the cell keeping at the same time system CO₂ removal efficiency at high level. At anode side, recirculation is used to reduce the fuel consumption (due to the unreacted hydrogen) and to increase the CO₂ purity in the stored gas. The system design was completely introduced in the model and several analyses were performed. CO₂ removal efficiency of 63% was reached with correspondent total efficiency of about 35%. System outlet is also thermal power, due to the high temperature of cathode exhaust off gases, and it is possible to consider integration of this outlet with the cogeneration system. This system, compared to other post-combustion CO₂ removal technologies, does not consume energy, but produces additional electrical and thermal power with a global efficiency of about 70%.     

Cogeneration—An energy alternative for the U.S.?

A Total Energy System (TES) is proposed to supply the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) with its total electrical and steam energy needs at a cost below that of the present system of a steam-production facility and purchased electricity. Diesel-engine, steam-turbine, and gas-turbine plants, with supplementary or auxiliary fired boilers, are the design alternatives to the current boiler plant. Each system design is evaluated for economic potential using the net present value method of analysis. Results show that only the diesel engine may be competitive with the current cost of producing steam and purchasing electricity. Preliminary analysis indicates that the annual savings of this plant may be as high as $959,000. However, a more realistic figure of $278,000 results after considering the costs of back-up service, the use of higher priced fuel, and the savings due to peak-pricing plans. This figure is exclusive of the difficult-to-quantify variables such as the cost of emission controls and the future price of oil. The cost of fuel for each TES option accounts for over 81% of the annual cost (capital charge + fuel + operation and maintenance) indicating a higher degree of sensitivity to oil prices than for a utility. Because of the many uncertainties and the dependence on oil, such a system is not economically attractive for MIT.

Our results are of general interest since many applications for which total energy systems and cogeneration have been suggested are less attractive, in terms of energy-demand schedules and initiallyinstalled equipment, than MIT. This work suggests that total energy and cogeneration proposals involving low demand-density and low capacity factors should be viewed with suspicion.     

Comparison by the use of numerical simulation of a MCFC-IR and a MCFC-ER when used with syngas obtained by atmospheric pressure biomass gasification

In order to realize biomass potential as a major source of energy in the power generation and transport sectors, there is a need for high efficient and clean energy conversion devices, especially in the low-medium range suiting the disperseness of this fuel. Large installations, based on boiler coupled to steam turbine (or IGCC), are too complex at smaller scale, where biomass gasifiers coupled to ICEs have low electrical efficiency (15-30%) and generally not negligible emissions.This paper analyses new plants configurations consisted of Fast Internal Circulated Fluidized-Bed Gasifier, hot-gas conditioning and cleaning, high temperature fuel cells (MCFC), micro gas turbines, water gas shift reactor and PSA to improve flexibility and electric efficiency at medium scale. The power plant feasibility was analyzed by means of a steady state simulation realized through the process simulator Chemcad in which a detailed 2D Fortran model has been integrated for the MCFC. A comparison of the new plant working with external (MCFC-ER) and internal (MCFC-IR) reforming MCFC was carried out. The small amount of methane in the syngas obtained by atmospheric pressure biomass gasification is not enough to exploit internal reforming cooling in the MCFC. This issue has been solved by the use of pre-reformer working as methanizer upstream the MCFC. The results of the simulations shown that, when MCFC-IR is used, the parameters of the cell are better managed. The result is a more efficient use of fuel even if some energy has to be consumed in the methanizer. In the MCFC-IR and MCFC-ER configurations, the calculated cell efficiency is, respectively, 0.53 and 0.42; the electric power produced is, respectively, 236 and 216 kW_e, and the maximum temperature reached in the cell layer is, respectively, 670 °C and 700 °C. The MCFC-ER configuration uses a cathode flowrate for MCFC cooling that are 30% lower than MCFC-IR configuration. This reduces pressure drop in the MCFC, possible crossover effect and auxiliaries power consumption. The electrical efficiency for the MCFC-IR configuration reaches 38%.     

Issues in fuel cell commercialization

After 25 years of effort, the phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is approaching commercialization as cell stack assemblies (CAS) show convincingly low degradation and its balance-of-plant (BOP) achieves mature reliability. A high present capital cost resulting from limited cumulative production remains an issue. The primary PAFC developer in the USA (International Fuel Cells, IFC) has only manufactured 40 MW of PAFC components to date, the equivalent of a single large gas turbine aero-engine or 500 compact car engines. The system is therefore still far up the production learning curve. Even so, the next generation of on-site 40% electrical efficiency (LHV) combined heat-and-power (CHP) PAFC system was available for order from IFC in 1995 at US$ 3000/kW (1995). To effectively compete in the marketplace with diesel generators, the dispersed cogeneration PAFC must cost approximately US$ 1550/kW (1995) in the USA and Europe. At somewhat lower costs than this, dispersed cogeneration PAFCs will compete with large combined-cycle generators. However, in Japan, costs greater than US$ 2000/kW will be competitive, based on the late-1995 trade exchange rate of 100–105 Yen/US $). The perceived advantages of fuel cell technologies over developments of more conventional generators (e.g., ultra-low emissions, siting) are not strong selling points in the marketplace. The ultimate criterion is cost. Cost reduction is now the key to market penetration. This must include reduced installation costs, for which the present goal is US$ 385/kW (1995). How further capital cost reductions can be achieved by the year 2000 is discussed. Progress to date is reviewed, and the potential for pressurized electric utility PAFC units is determined. Markets for high-temperature fuel cell system (molten carbonate, MCFC, and solid oxide, SOFC), which many consider to be 20 and 30 years, respectively, behind the PAFC, are discussed. Their high efficiency and high-quality waste heat should make them attractive if technical progress and costs are acceptable. Commercialization of the proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system is considered for stationary and mobile applications.     

MCFC and microturbine power plant simulation

The consistent problem of the CO₂ emissions and the necessity to find new energy sources, are motivating the scientific research to use high efficiency electric energy production's technologies that could exploit renewable energy sources too. The molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) due to its high efficiencies and low emissions seems a valid alternative to the traditional plant. Moreover, the high operating temperature and pressure give the possibility to use a turbine at the bottom of the cells to produce further energy, increasing therefore the plant's efficiencies. The basic idea using this two kind of technologies (MCFC and microturbine), is to recover, via the microturbine, the necessary power for the compressor, that otherwise would remove a consistent part of the MCFC power generated. The purpose of this work is to develop the necessary models to analyze different plant configurations. In particular, it was studied a plant composed of a MCFC 500 kW Ansaldo at the top of a microturbine 100 kW Turbec. To study this plant it was necessary to develop: (i) MCFC mathematical model, that starting from the geometrical and thermofluidodynamic parameter of the cell, analyze the electrochemical reaction and shift reaction that take part in it; (ii) plate reformer model, a particular compact reformer that exploit the heat obtained by a catalytic combustion of the anode and part of cathode exhausts to reform methane and steam; and (iii) microturbine-compressor model that describe the efficiency and pressure ratio of the two machines as a function of the mass flow and rotational regime. The models developed was developed in Fortran language and interfaced in Chemcad^© to analyze the power plant thermodynamic behavior. The results show a possible plant configuration with high electrical and global efficiency (over 50 and 74%).     

Study of a fuel cell network with water electrolysis for improving partial load efficiency of a residential cogeneration system

A fuel cell energy network which connects hydrogen and oxygen gas pipes, electric power lines and exhaust heat output lines of the fuel cell cogeneration for individual houses, respectively, is analysed. As an analysis case, the energy demand patterns of individual houses in Tokyo are used, and the analysis method for minimization of the operational cost using a genetic algorithm is described. The fuel cell network system of an analysis example assumed connecting the fuel cell cogeneration of five houses. If energy is supplied to the five houses using the fuel cell energy network proposed in this paper, 9% of city gas consumption will be reduced by the maximum from the results of analysis. Two per cent included with 9% is an effect of introducing water electrolysis operation of the fuel cells, corresponding to partial load operation of fuel cell cogeneration. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exergoeconomic analysis and determination of power cost in MCFC – steam turbine combined cycle

A novel combined molten carbonate fuel cell – steam turbine based system is proposed herein. In this cycle, steam is produced through the recovery of useful heat of an internal reforming MCFC and operates as work fluid in a Rankine cycle. Exergoeconomic analysis was performed, in order to verify the technical feasibility, including which components could be improved for greater efficiencies, as well as the cost of the power generated by the plant. A 10 MW MCFC was initially proposed, when the system reached 54.1% of thermal efficiency, 8.3% higher than MCFC alone, 11.9 MW of net power, 19% higher than MCFC alone, and an energy cost of 0.352 $/kWh. A sensitivity analysis was carried out and the parameters that most influenced on the cost were pointed out. The analysis pointed to the MCFC generation as the most impactful factor. By manipulating these values, it could be noted a significant power cost decrease, reaching satisfactory values to become economically feasible. The concept of economy of scale could be noticed in the proposed system, proving that a large-scale plant could be the focus of investment and public policies.     

Process integration of a steam turbine

Cogeneration consists of combined production of electricity and heat using fuel which allows remarkable energy savings in comparison with a system producing electricity and heat separately. The possibilities for integrating a cogeneration system with chemical processes has been studied in this paper. Improvement in the systems where high temperature process streams exist can be achieved by direct integration of steam turbine with them. A hot reactor stream was used instead of fuel to produce electricity and steam for further process heat requirements. A thermodynamics oriented approach to identify a cogeneration plant that completely satisfies process heat and power demand is highlighted. Pinch analysis with extended grand composite curve enables rational choice of utilities. The acrylic acid process was used to illustrate the procedure proposed. Economic attractiveness based on payback time and net present worth indicated that the steam turbine based cogeneration system would yield a return period of less than 3 months, showing that the investment in cogeneration could be of interest for this plant.     

A methodology for improving the performance of molten carbonate fuel cell/gas turbine hybrid systems

In the present article a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) system has been developed, modeled and implemented in Matlab language. It enables definition of the optimal operating conditions of the fuel cell, in terms of electrical and thermal performance, when it is a part of a hybrid plant composed of an MCFC system, a gas turbine and a possible heat recovery system. The thermal energy, which is recoverable from the adequately treated anodic exhaust gases, is utilized in a gas turbine plant to reduce its fuel consumption. Therefore, in the present article a methodology is illustrated to calculate the optimal values of some parameters characterizing the MCFC/gas turbine integrated system in terms of the electrical, first law and equivalent efficiencies. A choice is made among the sets of values of parameters investigated to improve the performance of the same integrated system according to its use (for the production of electric energy only or for the contemporary production of electric and thermal energy). Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Performance investigation of a combined MCFC system

This study investigates the performance of a combined industrial molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) system, including a turbo expander, which was recently installed by Enbridge Inc. in Toronto, Canada. It entails a comprehensive thermodynamic analysis regarding energy and exergy calculations, subject to varying operating conditions. Furthermore, a simplified and novel method is used for a cost analysis to assess the amortization of the system. The results from the base case study suggest that an overall energy efficiency as high as 60% is achievable while fuel cell stack energy and exergy efficiencies of 50.6% and 49.3%, respectively, are reached. The cost analysis indicates that the amortization of the system may take up to 15 years of operational time, depending on the price of electricity and natural gas. However, carbon offsets may make a paramount contribution to the overall savings and economic viability of future combined MCFC systems.     

Steady state simulation of energy production from biomass by molten carbonate fuel cells

This paper presents an integrated approach to the steady state simulation of biomass gasification, fuel cells and power generation processes. Attention is devoted to molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) due to the relative low cost, simpler construction and flexibility in the use of fuel. A steady state model simulating a global MCFC power plant based on real plants data is described and the simulations are selected according to real operating conditions. The software developed allows to study ‘ìn silico’ the effect of variations of the process conditions as well as modification of the input fuel, thus providing a useful tool for supporting technical decisions and feasibility study on the use of fuel cells in developing countries. The paper reports results of computer simulation focusing on macroscopic quantities of interest such as stack efficiency, global process electrical efficiency, cogenerative efficiency. The computer simulation is applied to a feasibility study of a MCFC coupled with a biomass gasification module focusing on the energy consumption of the process and reporting comparison of the energy efficiency for three kinds of biomass.     

Development of a case-based reasoning prototype for cogeneration plant design

This paper deals with the design problem associated with natural gas cogeneration systems. Despite the task complexity, this design process is strongly based on knowledge that experts formally apply in their activities. Through an appropriate knowledge representation scheme this study demonstrates that the knowledge-based system (KBS) is an approach well-suited to cogeneration plant design. The research involves the use of rule-based expert systems (RBES) and case-based reasoning (CBR). In this paper, the basic concepts of the CBR technique and a CBR prototype for assistance in cogeneration plant design are presented. An RBES prototype for natural gas cogeneration system design previously developed by the authors is used to generate cases for the CBR prototype. A solution generated by the CBR prototype for a plant design requiring 4 MW of power and 0.7 kg/s of saturated steam at 0.9 MPa is presented. The application of CBR in cogeneration plant design represents an original and important contribution of this work.     

Energy and exergy analyses of a hybrid system containing solid oxide and molten carbonate fuel cells,a gas turbine,and a compressed air energy storage unit

Design of a hybrid system composed of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), gas turbine (GT), and an advanced adiabatic compressed air energy storage (AA-CAES) based on only energy analysis could not completely identify optimal operating conditions. In this study, the energy and exergy analyses of the hybrid fuel cell system are performed to determine suitable working conditions for stable system operation with load flexibility. Pressure ratios of the compressors and energy charging ratios are varied to investigate their effects on the performance of the hybrid system. The hybrid fuel cell system is found to produce electricity up to 60% of the variation in demand. A GT pressure ratio of 2 provides agreeable conditions for efficient operation of the hybrid system. An AA-CAES pressure ratio of 15 and charging ratio of 0.9 assist in lengthening the discharging time during a high load demand based on an electricity variation of 50%.     

Simulation and modeling of copper-chlorine cycle,molten carbonate fuel cell alongside a heat recovery system named regenerative steam cycle and electric heater with the incorporation of PID controller in MATLAB/SIMULINK

MCFC (molten carbonate fuel cell) is a relatively new kind of fuel cell that may be utilized in both local and large-scale energy distribution and generating systems. MCFCs are largely regarded as a viable source of renewable energy. Making an MCFC is a time-consuming and costly process. Mathematical modeling and efficiency simulations are essential to appropriately maximize its performance. Regenerative cycle, copper-chlorine cycle, and electric heater with PID controller is also studied to integrate them with MCFC to increase the efficiency of the overall system. Copper–Chlorine cycle is integrated to provide a stable stream of hydrogen and oxygen for the fuel cell. The Molten Carbonate fuel cell of stack 100 generates 1.203 MW of power at Voltage of 1.2 V each. Waste Heat recovery system is installed named regenerative Steam cycle which produces 2.94 MW of power. The total efficiency of system is 57% and the total extracted power is 4.143 MW. MATLAB/Simulink R2020a is used for modeling of multigeneration system with use of Engineering Equation Solver.     

Thermoeconomic assessment of an absorption refrigeration and hydrogen-fueled diesel power generator cogeneration system

The thermoeconomic assessment of a cogeneration application that uses a reciprocating diesel engine and an ammonia–water absorption refrigeration system for electrical power and cold production from hydrogen as fuel is presented. The purpose of the assessment is to get both exergetic and exergoeconomic costs of the cogeneration plant products at different load conditions and concentrations of hydrogen–diesel oil blends. The exhaust gas of the reciprocating diesel engine is used as an energy source for an ammonia–water absorption refrigeration system. The reciprocating diesel engine was simulated using the Gate Cycle™ software, and the ammonia–water absorption refrigeration system simulation and the thermoeconomic assessment were carried out using the Engineering Equation Solver software (EES). The results show that engine combustion is the process of higher exergy destruction in the cogeneration system. Increased hydrogen concentration in the fuel increases the system exergetic efficiency for all load conditions. Exergy destruction in the components of the ammonia–water absorption refrigeration system is increased with increasing load due to the rise of heat transfer. At intermediate and high loads energy efficiency is increased in the power system, and low values of unit exergetic cost and competitive specific exergoeconomic costs are noticed. The cogeneration system operation at intermediate and high engine loads was proven to be feasible.     

A feasibility assessment of a retrofit Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell coal-fired plant for flue gas CO2 segregation

This work considers the use of a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) system as a power generation and CO₂ concentrator unit downstream of the coal burner of an existing production plant. In this way, the capability of MCFCs for CO₂ segregation, which today is studied primarily in reference to large-scale plants, is applied to an intermediate-size plant highlighting the potential for MCFC use as a low energy method of carbon capture. A technical feasibility analysis was performed using an MCFC system-integrated model capable of determining steady-state performance across varying feed composition. The MCFC user model was implemented in Aspen Custom Modeler and integrated into the reference plant in Aspen Plus. The model considers electrochemical, thermal, and mass balance effects to simulate cell electrical and CO₂ segregation performance. Results obtained suggest a specific energy requirement of 1.41 MJ kg CO₂^?1 significantly lower than seen in conventional Monoethanolamine (MEA) capture processes.     

Performance model of molten carbonate fuel cell

A performance model of a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), an electrochemical energy conversion device for electric power generation, is discussed. The presumptive ability of the MCFC model is improved and the impact of MCFC characteristics in fuel cell system simulations is investigated. Basic data are obtained experimentally by single-cell tests. A correlation formula based on the experimental data is derived for the cell voltage and the oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressures. Three types of MCFC systems are compared. With regard to fuel utilization, system characteristics using the proposed correlation are very similar to those obtained using a previous model. However, the amount of decrease predicted by the proposed model with respect to system efficiency is larger than that obtained by the previous model at high air utilization