Geologic feasibility of underground hydrogen storage in Canada

Electricity production in the majority of Canada's regions is characterized by high proportions of nuclear and renewable sources such as hydroelectricity. Future plans to phase out coal-fired power plants by 2030 and decrease fossil fuel use in favor of increased integration of renewables highlight the need to develop strategies which can match intermittent and base-load electricity output with market demand. The use of hydrogen gas generated through off-peak electrolysis has been highlighted by the Canadian government as a potential avenue forward in managing electrical grids with surplus and intermittent electricity generation. This technology can be supported in a safe and cost-effective manner by underground hydrogen storage in geological formations. In this article, an overview of Canadian geology, as well as an assessment of the potential application of underground storage methods and associated safety concerns in Canada is presented. Favorable locations for pilot projects are found in the sedimentary basins of western and Atlantic Canada as well as southern Ontario, or the crystalline rocks of the Canadian Shield.     

Adapting the French nuclear fleet to integrate variable renewable energies via the production of hydrogen: Towards massive production of low carbon hydrogen?

Producing low-carbon hydrogen at a competitive rate is becoming a new challenge with respect to efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. We examine this issue in the French context, which is characterised by a high nuclear share and the target to increase variable renewables by 2050. The goal is to evaluate the extent to which excess nuclear power could contribute to producing low-carbon hydrogen.Our approach involves designing scenarios for nuclear and renewables, modelling and evaluating the potential nuclear hydrogen production volumes and costs, examining the latter through the scope of hydrogen market attractiveness and evaluating the potential of CO₂ mitigation.This article shows that as renewable shares increase, along with the hydrogen market expected growth driven by mobility uses, opportunities are created for the nuclear operator. If nuclear capacities are maintained, nuclear hydrogen production could correspond to the demand by 2030. If not, possibilities could still exist by 2050.     

On the production of hydrogen via alkaline electrolysis during off-peak periods

This article studies the opportunity for producing hydrogen via alkaline electrolysis from electricity consumption during off-peak periods. Two aspects will be discussed: electricity spot markets and nuclear electricity production in France.

From a market point of view, when there is a significant fluctuation in electricity prices, the use of an electrolysis installation during off-peak periods makes it possible to make quite considerable savings in production costs. Savings vary enormously from one market to the next; some highly fluctuating markets offer very low off-peak prices and allow for viable hydrogen production, even if average electricity prices first appear to be quite high. Very fluctuating spot prices market may be difficult to predict and makes operations of an electrolysis installation more complicated and risky. For other more stable markets, the use of an electrolysis installation during off-peak periods does not appear to be a relevant proposition.

From the point of view of French electricity production, the availability of current nuclear power plants and the estimation of available energy for mass production of hydrogen show that the installations studied would not be viable. For “peak period” use, it would certainly be more useful to have electrolysers with a lower investment proportion, even if this means slightly higher operating costs. Research into large-capacity electrolysers should, therefore, both develop low-production-cost electrolysers, for use in base load mode where dedicated production means are concerned, and highly flexible electrolysers, with low investment costs, which could easily be viable with low rates of use.     

Hydrogen economy assessment for long-term energy systems in Japan

An assessment is made of hydrogen technology development; in particular, economy as an energy carrier, applicability for end-uses and the potential of the market in the future. Specifically, rough static cost comparisons are made on several modes of electricity transmission and hydrogen transport, and on several ways of off-peak electricity saving; including energy storage in the form of hydrogen. Then, the quantity of oil that could be saved for some representative end-use sectors if hydrogen fuel were to be introduced is discussed. Finally, a potential market is assessed, by projecting overall future energy supply/demand dynamics in Japan.     

Options of natural gas pipeline reassignment for hydrogen: Cost assessment for a Germany case study

The uncertain role of the natural gas infrastructure in the decarbonized energy system and the limitations of hydrogen blending raise the question of whether natural gas pipelines can be economically utilized for the transport of hydrogen. To investigate this question, this study derives cost functions for the selected pipeline reassignment methods. By applying geospatial hydrogen supply chain modeling, the technical and economic potential of natural gas pipeline reassignment during a hydrogen market introduction is assessed.The results of this study show a technically viable potential of more than 80% of the analyzed representative German pipeline network. By comparing the derived pipeline cost functions, it could be derived that pipeline reassignment can reduce the hydrogen transmission costs by more than 60%. Finally, a countrywide analysis of pipeline availability constraints for the year 2030 shows a cost reduction of the transmission system by 30% in comparison to a newly built hydrogen pipeline system.     

Utilization of solar–hydrogen energy in the UAE to maintain its share in the world energy market for the 21st century

A preliminary solar–hydrogen energy system for the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has been proposed to bridge the gap between oil and natural gas demand and supply in the 21st century, and to meet the country's share in the energy market. In our study, we quantitatively consider the benefits of such an energy system on the overall energy situation in the UAE. The variables considered include population, energy demand, energy production, income from sales of fossil fuels and hydrogen energy, photovoltaics area, and total land area required for installing such a system. Our study indicated that the UAE would fail to meet its share in the oil market demand by the year 2015, while in the case of natural gas it will be by the year 2042. In order to maintain its share in the world energy market, we propose that hydrogen be gradually introduced to meet the demand. The income generated by hydrogen energy would account for 90% of the nation's total income if such a system were utilized. Our analysis could be greatly influenced by several factors such as future government projects related to fossil fuel production and increasing diversification in the economy of the country.     

大连石化制氢装置加工天然气原料技术分析

加速天然气的生产和消费,发展天然气化工,减轻对石油的需求压力,确保国家能源安全,已成为加速我国化学工业结构调整、强化节能减排的必然趋势。大连石化拥有两套完全独立的制氢装置,单套装置的公称产氢能力为10×104m3/h(标准),每一套装置都包括造气单元和PSA提纯单元。该装置加工的原料为轻石脑油或液化石油气,成本昂贵,操作费用大。提出利用低价、节能的天然气作为装置替代原料的设想。可行性分析认为,天然气基本不含烯烃,且芳烃和环烷烃含量低,氢气产率高,可以避免催化剂积炭,延长催化剂寿命,是制氢的首选原料;加之天然气富含甲烷,其H/C较高,一般在3.8左右,单位产氢量的原料消耗较少。大连石化制氢装置改为加工天然气后,原料精制单元,包括加氢反应器和脱硫反应器、中温变换单元和PSA氢气提纯单元的操作参数均不发生改变,可以大大降低装置的原料消耗和燃料消耗,同时提高了蒸汽的产出量,减少了CO2的排放。     

The emerging hydrogen economy and its impact on LNG

Hydrogen is gaining prominence as a critical tool for countries to meet decarbonisation targets. The main production pathways are based on natural gas or renewable electricity. LNG represents an increasingly important component of the global natural gas market. This paper examines synergies and linkages between the hydrogen and LNG values chains and quantifies the impact of increased low-carbon hydrogen production on global LNG flows. The analysis is conducted through interviews with LNG industry stakeholders, a review of secondary literature and a scenario-based assessment of the potential development of global low-carbon hydrogen production and LNG trade until 2050 using a novel, integrated natural gas and hydrogen market model. The model-based analysis shows that low-carbon hydrogen production could become a significant user of natural gas and thus stabilise global LNG demand. Furthermore, commercial and operational synergies could assist the LNG industry in developing a value chain around natural gas-based low-carbon hydrogen.     

Hydrogen economy in Taiwan and biohydrogen

This study analyzed how production technology advances and how economic structure reformation affects transition to a hydrogen economy in Taiwan before 2030. A model, called “Taiwan general equilibrium model-energy, for hydrogen (TAIGEM-EH)”, was the forecast tool used to consider steam reforming of natural gas, the biodegradation of biomass and water electrolysis using nuclear power or renewable energies of hydrogen production industries. Owing to increase in the prices of oil and concern for global warming effects, hydrogen will have a 10.3% share in 2030 when demands for hydrogen production could be met if strong technological progress in hydrogen production were made. With reformed economic structure and strong support to progress in production technologies, hydrogen's share can reach 22.1% in 2030 and become the dominating energy source from then onwards. In the four scenarios studied, including developing country with three levels of effort and developed country with strong effort, the biohydrogen production industry can become a main supplier of hydrogen in the market if its technological progress can be competitive to other _CO2${\mathrm{CO}}_2$-free alternatives.     

Nuclear production of hydrogen development in the Federal Republic of Germany

For a long time hydrogen has been used in industry and today is mainly produced from hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is used in the gas supply, chemical industry, oil industry and in the metallurgical industry. Hydrogen obtained from nuclear energy can contribute to the future energy supply as well as take over functions which today are filled by natural gas and mineral oil.Based on these properties, and under the assumption of economical production, hydrogen can attain a wide spectrum of uses, especially as an energy carrier for heat supply in industry, and for household and private consumption; as a raw material for the chemical industry, for the synthesis of hydrocarbons and for the production of ammonia; as hydrogen in the oil industry and for coal reprocessing; as a reducing agent in the metallurgical industry (especially in the steel industry); and as a fuel for transportation (mainly for aircraft). The actual methods for production of hydrogen and the methods for the refinement of coal make linking with nuclear energy possible by the allocation of the process energies necessary for the process of conversion. These are mainly process steam and process heat.A further possibility for the production of hydrogen is the thermochemical process. In this process the feeds are water and nuclear energy, the products are hydrogen and oxygen. The nuclear energy is used in the form of high-temperature heat, for example from high-temperature reactors. The process is comprised of a series of chemical reactions, which represent in total the reaction of water splitting.     

Nuclear hydrogen: An assessment of product flexibility and market viability

Nuclear energy has the potential to play an important role in the future energy system as a large-scale source of hydrogen without greenhouse gas emissions. Thus far, economic studies of nuclear hydrogen tend to focus on the levelized cost of hydrogen without accounting for the risks and uncertainties that potential investors would face. We present a financial model based on real options theory to assess the profitability of different nuclear hydrogen production technologies in evolving electricity and hydrogen markets. The model uses Monte Carlo simulations to represent uncertainty in future hydrogen and electricity prices. It computes the expected value and the distribution of discounted profits from nuclear hydrogen production plants. Moreover, the model quantifies the value of the option to switch between hydrogen and electricity production, depending on what is more profitable to sell. We use the model to analyze the market viability of four potential nuclear hydrogen technologies and conclude that flexibility in output product is likely to add significant economic value for an investor in nuclear hydrogen. This should be taken into account in the development phase of nuclear hydrogen technologies.     

Large-scale solar energy utilization—possibilities and restrictions

The time frame and the technical and economical requirements to make solar hydrogen a significant secondary energy carrier are Western Europe are discussed. The basic elements for the production of hydrogen are solar thermal and photovoltaic power plants and electrolyzers. Transporting hydrogen in pipelines (from Africa to Europe) makes it possible to decouple the demand from the time-dependent solar hydrogen generation. Results are presented for the material and land requirements, the energy pay-back times and the financial investment necessary. It is concluded that from a technical and financial point of view a sizeable amount of the energy demand of the year 2030 could be satisfied by solar hydrogen.     

Microbial hydrogen production from replenishable resources

It is estimated that more than 90% of the world's present energy needs are provided by fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal, which until a few years ago were regarded as an endless source of cheap energy. However, these fossil fuels represent a non-replenishable natural resource. The cost of oil and natural gas is escalating rapidly, while the world energy demand continues to increase due to population growth and technological development. Therefore, there is a need to develop new sources of energy based on replenishable cheap raw materials. One such approach of potential importance is the use of carbohydrates which are biochemically converted to hydrogen gas by a wide variety of microorganisms. This paper reviews the conditions of microbial growth and metabolism which result in the production of hydrogen gas. It is concluded that microbial hydrogen production represents a potential new energy source and a lot of basic research is needed to establish the economic feasibility of hydrogen production from various microbial systems.     

Projects for industrial development of advanced alkaline electrolysers in France

Economic competition between processes for hydrogen production has changed during the last ten years, due to the increasing cost of naphtha, LPG, and natural gas compared to hydraulic or nuclear electricity. France, which has very low fossil fuel resources, has developed a large nuclear programme which results in both a low cost nuclear base electricity and availability of off-peak nuclear electricity within 6–8 years. The structure of the electricity demand is described, with reference to the different types of power production (nuclear, hydraulic, coal or fuel) and this situation appears quite favorable for use of off-peak nuclear electricity for water electrolysis and hydrogen production. Evaluation of electrolysis processes started in 1975 and detailed studies performed in 1977–1978 have focused interest on advanced alkaline electrolysis, with the objective of some improvement in process efficiency and a large decrease in the cost of electrolysers. In 1979, two industrial groups have been contracted to make a two-year R & D programme in order to define an improved alkaline electrolysis process, to operate this process on a 20–30 kW bench, and to elaborate a design of a 2–3 MW pilot electrolyser. The technical performances of the two selected processes are described and some indications are given on the future development of this programme.     

The sustainability indicators of power production systems

One of the most important elements of economical and social development is to provide uninterrupted electric energy to consumers. The increasing world population and technological developments rapidly increase the demand on electric energy. In order to meet the increasing demand for sustainable development, it is necessary to use the consumable resources of the world in the most productive manner and minimum level and to keep its negative effects on human health and environment in the lowest level as much as possible. In this study, alignment of hydrogen fuel cells, hydroelectric, wind, solar and geothermal sourced electric energy systems, in addition to fossil fueled coal, natural gas and nuclear power plants, in respect to sustainability parameters such as CO₂ emission, land use, energy output, fresh water consumption and environmental and social effects is researched. Consequently, it has been determined that the wind and nuclear energy power plants have the highest sustainability indicators. The fuel cells that use hydrogen obtained by using coal and natural gas are determined as the most disadvantageous transformation technologies in respect to sustainability. This study contains an alignment related to today's technologies. Using of renewable energy resources especially in production of hydrogen, output increases to be ensured with nanotechnology applications in photovoltaic systems may change this alignment.     

Current status and future projections of LNG demand and supplies: A global prospective

An unceasing growth of gas consumption in domestic households, industry, and power plants has gradually turned natural gas into a major source of energy. Main drivers in this development are the technical and economic advantages of natural gas. It is a clean, versatile, and easily controllable fuel. On this basis, natural gas is often considered the form of energy that will be the “bridging fuel” to a sustainable energy system, sometime after 2050. Unlike other main sources of energy, such as oil and coal, gas is not traded on an actual world market. This paper provides an overview on demand and supplies of natural gas (LNG) in the past as a function of gas prices, gas technology (gas sweetening, liquefaction, shipping and re-gasification), and gas market and how they have changed recently. It also discusses the likely developments in global LNG demand for the period to the year 2030.     

The Asia Pacific natural gas market: Large enough for all?

Among natural gas producing nations, there has been some concern about how the Asia Pacific will meet future demand for energy. We argue that natural gas, both regional and global, will play a vital role. Estimates of potential gas consumption in the region are analyzed and used to develop consensus projections to 2030. These consumption profiles are compared with gas supply estimates including indigenous, pipeline and LNG for the Asia Pacific market. From this analytical framework, we find that demand will be sufficiently large to accommodate supplies from diverse sources including North America, the Middle East, Central Asia, Russia, and the Asia Pacific itself. An important policy implication is that gas producing and consuming nations should benefit from promoting gas trade and not be concerned about a situation of potential lack of demand coupled with oversupply.     

Evaluation of conceptual electrolysis-based energy storage systems using gas expanders

In this study, four energy storage systems (Power-to-Gas-to-Power) were analysed that allow electrolysis products to be fully utilized immediately after they are produced. For each option, the electrolysis process was supplied with electricity from a wind farm during the off-peak demand periods. In the first two variants, the produced hydrogen was directed to a natural gas pipeline, while the third and fourth options assumed the use of hydrogen for synthetic natural gas production. All four variants assumed the use of a gas expander powered by high-temperature exhaust gases generated during gas combustion. In the first two options, gas was supplied from a natural gas network, while synthetic natural gas produced during methanation was used in the other two options. A characteristic feature of all systems was the combustion of gaseous fuels within a ballast-free oxidant atmosphere without nitrogen, which is the fundamental component of air in conventional systems. The fifth variant was a reference for the systems equipped with gas expanders and assumed the use of fuel cells for power generation. To evaluate the individual variants, the energy storage efficiency was defined and determined, and the calculated overall efficiency ranged from 17.08 to 23.79%, which may be comparable to fuel cells.     

Hybrid systems to address seasonal mismatches between electricity production and demand in nuclear renewable electrical grids

A strategy to enable zero-carbon variable electricity production with full utilization of renewable and nuclear energy sources has been developed. Wind and solar systems send electricity to the grid. Nuclear plants operate at full capacity with variable steam to turbines to match electricity demand with production (renewables and nuclear). Excess steam at times of low electricity prices and electricity demand go to hybrid fuel production and storage systems. The characteristic of these hybrid technologies is that the economic penalties for variable nuclear steam inputs are small. Three hybrid systems were identified that could be deployed at the required scale. The first option is the gigawatt-year hourly-to-seasonal heat storage system where excess steam from the nuclear plant is used to heat rock a kilometer underground to create an artificial geothermal heat source. The heat source produces electricity on demand using geothermal technology. The second option uses steam from the nuclear plant and electricity from the grid with high-temperature electrolysis (HTR) cells to produce hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is primarily for industrial applications; however, the HTE can be operated in reverse using hydrogen for peak electricity production. The third option uses variable steam and electricity for shale oil production.