Studies in efficiency: Semantic generalization in schizophrenia.

This study examined the hypothesis that schizophrenics would generalize a conditioned GSR response relatively more to the homonym of a CS and relatively less to the synonym than normals. The specific prediction was that the difference in the magnitude of response to synonyms and homonyms (RS - RH) would be greater for normals than for schizophrenics. The Ss were 16 normals and 16 chronic schizophrenics. The synonyms elicited a larger response than the homonyms with the majority of normal Ss. The opposite results were obtained with the schizophrenics. An analysis of variance clearly supported the hypothesized interaction between the "normal-schizophrenic" variable and generalization to synonyms and homonyms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenic cognitive deficit as a function of scoring standards.

Describes 3 experiments in which the responses of normal Ss (mostly prison inmates and firefighters) and of schizophrenics to the Stanford Binet Test Vocabulary items, the WAIS Vocabulary items, and the WAIS Similarities items were scored by 2 methods, one relatively strict and the other relatively lenient. Subtests of strictly and leniently scored items from each of the 3 sources were matched for normal Ss on psychometric characteristics that determine power of the test to distinguish the more able from the less able Ss. A greater deficit on the strictly scored than on the leniently scored items was found for chronic schizophrenics on the Stanford-Binet Vocabulary, for newly admitted schizophrenics but not for chronic schizophrenics on the WAIS Vocabulary, and for neither group on the WAIS Similarities. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of categorization and imagery on recognition and recall by process and reactive schizophrenics.

Imagery and categorization were orthogonally varied in an assessment of recognition and recall of 16 process schizophrenics (process group), 16 reactive schizophrenics (reactive group), and 16 controls (student group). Schizophrenic Ss were selected from the inpatient population at Bellevue Hospital, and "students" were volunteers who had all received a bachelor's degree. For all groups, recognition was uninfluenced by categorization but was directly related to imagery. For the student and reactive groups, recall was directly related both to categorization and to imagery. For the process group, however, neither variable influenced recall. In addition, the student group had higher intertrial repetition scores than the reactive group, which had higher scores than the process group. Taken together, findings suggest that the process schizophrenic's inabiity to retrieve information from memory is related to faulty mnemonic organization of to-be-remembered materials. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Speed of perceptual functioning in chronic nonparanoid schizophrenics: Partial replication and extension.

Results of a partial replication of a study by A. J. Yates and P. Korboot (see record 1971-06730-001), with 3 groups of 10 chronic nonparanoid schizophrenics, paranoid schizophrenics, and psychotic depressives as Ss, confirm the finding of the extreme slowness of functioning in chronic nonparanoid schizophrenics. The finding was extended by showing that this group was also significantly slower than chronic psychotic depressives when inspection time was measured uncontaminated by verbal response time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time perception and conflict arousal in schizophrenia.

The hypothesis that schizophrenics would exhibit greater distortion in estimation of duration time for stimuli relevant to their major conflicts than for other stimuli was investigated. 3 groups, each with 16 Ss who were homogeneous with respect to experiencing primary conflicts with either aggression, sex, or dependency, were formed. A factorial Latin square design was used in which Ss estimated stimuli durations following the tachistoscopic presentation at 4 exposure times of 4 pictorial stimuli, 1 of which represented their major conflict area. Results demonstrated that greatest distortions occurred for conflict pictures at the .001 level. Distortion elicitation of the aggression stimulus was greater than other stimuli at .001 for the combined schizophrenics, an effect not found with normal control Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomic correlates of chronic schizophrenia: A reaction time paradigm.

Assessed basal, tonic, and 2 phasic measures of heart rate and skin conductance among 16 drug-free, chronic, process, nonparanoid schizophrenics, and 2 groups of control Ss (hospital staff and prison inmates). Of particular interest were changes in autonomic activity that attended manipulation of "go" signal intensity within a reaction time paradigm. Among control Ss, increased signal intensity produced increases in tonic levels and amplitude of anticipatory responding. Among schizophrenics, however, the reverse occurred: Increased signal intensity resulted in decreased tonic levels and inhibition of anticipatory responding. Schizophrenic responses occurred in the absence of basal level differences between groups. Results are interpreted as indicating the presence of a learned anticipatory set that serves to reduce the impact of stimulus intensity. This inhibitory set would also appear to reduce receptivity to the cue component of stimuli. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social deprivation and satiation on the reinforcing properties of social stimulation in chronic male hospitalized schizophrenics.

Hypothesized that (a) pre-experimental social deprivation will lead to an increase in the reinforcing properties of social stimulation, and (b) pre-experimental social satiation will lead to a decrease in the reinforcing properties of social stimulation. Ss were 16 chronic male 38-59 yr old schizophrenics. Ss in the social deprivation groups were isolated for 45 min before they were given a simple marble-dropping task. Ss in the social satiation groups received a 10-min undemanding conversation with E before each experimental session. Social contact with E was significantly more often sought than avoided following 45 min of social deprivation, whereas social contact was avoided significantly more often following 10 min of social satiation. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of anticipatory alerting signals and a compatible secondary task on vigilance performance.

This visual vigilance study simulated an industrial inspection task in which Ss were alerted to possible targets by a semiautomatic detection device. 1 experimental group was forewarned of possible targets by a buzzer with 1-sec foreperiod and rested between alerting signals. A 2nd experimental group worked on a problem-solving secondary task instead of resting between buzzes. A control group observed the display continuously. Other variables of interest were sex of O, target type, and size of display window. It was found that: (1) performance by alerted groups was far superior to that of controls and continued to improve throughout the task, (2) a vigilance decrement was not in evidence in any condition, (3) the problem-solving task did not interfere with detection performance, (4) male and female Ss performed equally well, and (5) Ss engaged in the problem-solving task greatly underestimated the duration of the detection task and reported it "interesting" while the other groups estimated duration accurately and indicated boredom. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intramodal and crossmodal stimulus diversity on the reaction time of chronic schizophrenics.

Compared 16 chronic schizophrenics (mean age 42.7 yrs), 16 alcoholic inpatients (mean age 37.6 yrs), and 16 healthy Ss (mean age 36.9 yrs) with respect to their RTs to stimuli from 1 (ipsimodal condition) or 2 (crossmodal condition) modalities. In the ipsimodal condition, a low-pitched sound presented to one ear and a high-pitched sound presented to the other ear served as imperative stimuli, alternating randomly. In the crossmodal condition, a light or a sound was presented. In responding to the sound imperative stimuli, schizophrenics were more retarded than were comparison groups when the preceding imperative stimulus was a light or a different sound, relative to when it was the same sound. With the inclusion of warning stimuli of either modality into the crossmodal condition, both comparison groups were more retarded than were schizophrenics when the preceding imperative stimulus was a light, relative to when it was the same sound. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive training in alcoholic men.

Three groups of alcoholic Ss (n?=?76) and one group of community nonalcoholic control subjects (n?=?36) were tested using a baseline battery of three clusters of neuropsychological tests measuring learning and memory, problem-solving, and perceptual-motor functioning. Alcoholics were divided into 3 groups: One group (n?=?25) received 12 hrs of memory training over the subsequent 2-wk period; a 2nd group (n?=?26) received a similar period of training in problem-solving techniques; and a 3rd group (n?=?25) received no training during the 2-wk period. Approximately 3 wks after the baseline testing, the same tests were readministered to the 3 groups. All 3 alcoholic groups performed significantly poorer than the control group on all 3 clusters of baseline tests but did not differ from each other on those clusters. At retest, the problem-solving group improved significantly more on the problem-solving tests than did the no-training group and manifested a trend to differ from the memory group but did not improve more than the other groups on memory or perceptual-motor tests. Although there was no overall differential improvement on memory tests by the memory-training group, younger Ss in that group improved significantly more than older Ss. This relation was not present in the other groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparisons of the restricted association of chronic schizophrenic and normal control subjects.

Obtained 11 types of restricted associations and free associations from 24 chronic schizophrenics and 24 normal controls equated for age and education. The associations of schizophrenics were more variable than those of normal Ss, especially on tasks which most restricted the choice of responses. Agreement in responding between normal and schizophrenic Ss was markedly lower when compared with that between high- and low-creative Ss, or with 1-yr, test-retest data. Repetition of responses given to the same stimuli under different instructions was markedly higher for schizophrenic than normal Ss, and thus the degree of task and response differentiation was reduced. The restricted associations overlapped with free associations more markedly for schizophrenic than for normal Ss, but the general structure of a conceptual semantic space was about the same for both groups. It is argued that when explicit constraint in tasks of verbal associations is high, schizophrenic Ss, more than normals, impose a low degree of implicit constraint on their verbal behavior; when the external constraint is low, they increase their implicit constraint. (26 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention in schizophrenia: An analysis of selectivity in the functional visual field.

Presents a visual–spatial approach to the study of attention dysfunction. The hypotheses of broadened and narrowed attention were tested by comparing peripheral visual discrimination of 10 acute schizophrenic and 11 chronic schizophrenic inpatients and 16 normal Ss (hospital staff) within 2 regions of the functional visual field. Pairs of visual stimuli were presented at 4 display angles. Measures of response accuracy, response latency, and latency of eye movement of peripheral stimuli were obtained. Results indicate that acute schizophrenics generally discriminated peripheral signals more accurately than chronic schizophrenics or normals. Normals discriminated signals more accurately than chronic schizophrenics. Results suggest the differential use of selective strategies. Limitations in the use of peripheral information among chronic schizophrenics implies a reduction in the amount of information transmitted in a selective act and a reduction in the economy of selective activities. In contrast to normals, acute schizophrenics utilized more efficient selective strategies over a greater spatial area, implying greater transmission of information within discrete selective acts. Results also indicate that schizophrenics initiated eye movements earlier than normals and that response latency was greater for acute schizophrenics than for normals. Results are interpreted as providing partial support for P. H. Venable's (1964) theory of input dysfunction. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual ability, response interference, and arousal in withdrawn and active schizophrenics.

Conducted 2 studies to assess 225 female schizophrenics' conceptual organization under conditions of low and high arousal and low and high response interference. Ss were classified as either active or withdrawn on Venables's Activity-Withdrawal scale. Arousal was manipulated by having Ss maintain grip pressure on a dynamometer. Besides revealing less ability of schizophrenics to benefit from increases in conceptual organization of input, results reveal important differences between active and withdrawn schizophrenics. In addition to conceptual organization deficiencies, withdrawns exhibited response interference problems under standard conditions and showed trends indicating further deterioration of both conceptual organization and response interference with increased arousal. In contrast, actives showed neither severe response interference nor increased deterioration with increased arousal. One aspect of actives' performance improved with heightened arousal, suggesting that these Ss function normally at a suboptimal level of arousal. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential recovery of intellectual, associational, and psychophysiological functioning in withdrawn and active schizophrenics.

Recent research indicates that activity level in schizophrenics is related to probability of cerebral damage, neurophysiological functioning, severity of the schizophrenic episode, and level of premorbid adjustment. Withdrawn patients consistently appear more disturbed than active patients on these variables. The present study examined 15 withdrawn chronic schizophrenics (mean age 37.8 yrs) and 15 active chronic schizophrenics (mean age 40.2 yrs) who were evaluated on the Venables Activity–Withdrawal Scale within their 1st wk of hospitalization. Withdrawns recovered more slowly than actives across the 1st 5 wks of hospitalization in terms of intellectual, associational, and psychophysiological measures. The interaction of these various areas of functioning and their implications for clinical practice are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creativity and schizophrenia: An equivalence of cognitive processing.

Two tests of creativity were given to 10 paranoid and 10 nonparanoid schizophrenics, 10 nonpsychotic psychiatric controls, and 10 normal Ss. Ss were aged between 18 and 50 yrs. Scores on vocabulary and similarities tests, as well as education, medication, marital status, socioeconomic background, and age, were examined. Results indicate that nonparanoid schizophrenics were significantly more creative than paranoids and psychiatric controls on one creativity measure, a graded level measure of the Alternate Uses Test. Also, nonparanoid schizophrenics produced a significantly higher percentage of "highly creative" responses than did normals. Nonparanoid schizophrenics also scored higher than the other groups on the Welsh Figure Preference Test, but this finding was found to be related to age rather than to schizophrenia. The superior performance of the nonparanoid schizophrenic is discussed in terms of the encouragement that a supportive, nonjudgmental testing environment provides. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of speech in the inhibitory control of motoric behavior of schizophrenic patients.

Investigated the conditions under which speech influences the speed of a tapping response in 48 schizophrenics and 48 nonschizophrenics. Ss verbalized 3 words ("goads") under varied pretask instructions (minimal and slow instructions) and 2 sources of delivery (self-delivered "internal" verbalizations and other-delivered "external" verbalizations). Results indicate that all groups inhibited speed of tapping for a slow instruction. The schizophrenics under the internal goad condition inhibited response as well as the control group; under the external goad condition these patients were less able to inhibit response. For the minimal instruction condition the schizophrenics responded to the meaning inherent in the goads faster and slower for the internal but not the external goad condition. The converse was true for the control group. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal competition, overinclusive thinking, and schizophrenia.

Pretested 4 matched groups of 20 Ss each on 3 measures of overinclusive thinking. 2 of these groups were chronic schizophrenics and 2 were psychiatric aides. 1 wk. later, Ss performed a word-naming task under individual and then under paired-competitive or paired-noncompetitive conditions. They were then retested on the 3 measures. Schizophrenic proverb interpretations were rated as to the quality and level of abstraction. Following competitive experiences, schizophrenics became more overinclusive but not more concrete or bizarre. The position that schizophrenics are unable to engage in conceptualization or lose the ability to abstract under stress was not supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increasing the interpersonal problem-solving skills of an alcoholic population.

64 male alcoholics aged 23–66 yrs admitted into an alcoholism treatment program at a VA hospital were assigned to either the control or treatment group. Control Ss participated in all standard treatment aspects of the program. Treatment Ss, however, participated in an additional 10 sessions of group therapy structured specifically to improve interpersonal problem-solving thinking skills. Comparisons conducted at the point of discharge (generally 6 wks after admission) demonstrated that treatment Ss had made significantly greater improvement on a measure of problem-solving thinking (Means–Ends Problem Solving procedure) than had controls. Further, a comparison of Ss' responses in a structured discharge interview demonstrated that treatment Ss were significantly more likely to anticipate and plan ahead for postdischarge problems than were control Ss. Data also reveal that the means–ends problem-solving procedure can reliably discriminate individuals within an adult alcoholic population who differ in their levels of social competence and in the quality of their planning for coping with postdischarge problems. Finally, follow-up at the 1-mo postdischarge point indicated that the majority of treatment Ss contacted had made practical use of the problem-solving principles that were taught in the group sessions. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Level versus pattern of neuropsychological performance among schizophrenic and diffusely brain-damaged patients.

Differences in both mean level and pattern of neuropsychological test performance were examined among groups of carefully screened schizophrenic and acute and chronic diffusely brain-damaged patients (24 Ss in each group). This was done separately for the WAIS subtests and the 12 average impairment rating (AIR) variables derived from the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. The schizophrenics performed at a significantly higher level than brain-damaged Ss on both test batteries. Subsequent deficit pattern analyses and coefficients of profile pattern similarity revealed very little difference among the 3 groups in their patterns of performance on the WAIS and AIR batteries. Discriminant function analyses were employed to estimate the diagnostic utility of level vs pattern of performance on the WAIS and AIR in discriminating schizophrenics from brain-damaged Ss. Results suggest that mean level of performance can be used to discriminate clearly defined schizophrenic and diffusely brain-damaged groups, but that pattern analysis offers little additional information. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual memory for numerousness in "nonpsychotic schizophrenics."

Conducted an exploratory study on the assumption that a population of nonpsychotic schizophrenics could be identified by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) 2-7-8 code and that these schizophrenics would exhibit the memory deficiencies associated with a thought disorder. 23 elevated MMPI 2-7-8 code and 23 nonelevated code Ss participated in a delayed paired-comparison task. Ss judged whether the 2nd of a pair of dot patterns consisted of "more" or "less" dots than the 1st, and the signal detectability measure of d' was used to evaluate group differences for mnemonic capacity. Elevated Ss' memory strength was inferior to that of the nonelevated group under the conditions in which stimulus encoding was less favorable for abstracting a durable memory trace. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)