Ultrasonic vibration assisted grinding of hard and brittle linear micro-structured surfaces

In this paper, a novel ultrasonic vibration assisted grinding (UVAG) technique was presented for machining hard and brittle linear micro-structured surfaces. The kinematics of the UVAG for micro-structures was first analyzed by considering both the vibration trace and the topological features on the machined surface. Then, the influences of the ultrasonic vibration parameters and the tilt angle on the ground quality of micro-structured surfaces were investigated. The experimental results indicate that the introduction of ultrasonic vibration is able to improve the surface quality (The roughness SR_a was reduced to 78 nm from 136 nm), especially in guaranteeing the edge sharpness of micro-structures. By increasing the tilt angle, the surface roughness can be further reduced to 56 nm for a 59% improvement in total. By using the preferred UVAG parameters realized by orthogonal experiments, a micro cylinder array with surface roughness of less than 50 nm and edge radius of less than 1 μm was fabricated. The primary and secondary sequence of the grinding parameters obtained by the orthogonal experiments are as follows: feed rate, tilt angle of workpiece, depth of grinding, vibration frequency and amplitude. The spindle speed in the range of 1000 rpm–3000 rpm does not significantly affect the machined micro-structured surface roughness. Finally, more micro-structures including a micro V-groove array and a micro pyramid array were machined on binderless WC as well as SiC ceramic by means of the UVAG technique. The edge radius on the V-grooves and pyramids are both less than 1 μm, indicating the feasibility of UVAG in machining hard and brittle micro-structured surfaces for an improved surface quality.     

Form error compensation in single-point inclined axis nanogrinding for small aspheric insert

Based on an examination of traditional arc-enveloped grinding method, a single-point inclined axis nanogrinding method is presented to grind an aspheric insert by compensating tool setting error, radius error, and residual form error. Profile data from on-machine measurement are used to obtain the tool setting error and radius error of grinding wheel, as well as the normal residual form error. Compensation method of single-point inclined axis nanogrinding is built up for generating new compensation path. Grinding test of aspheric tungsten carbide insert with diameter 9.5 mm is conducted to evaluate performances of the grinding mode and compensation method. A last form error of 200 nm in peak to valley and surface roughness of 2.243 nm in Ra are achieved. These results indicated that the form error compensation method and single-point inclined axis nanogrinding mode can significantly improve form accuracy and surface roughness of ground surface.     

Ultraprecision grinding of TiC-based cermet hemisphere couples

In aerospace industry, TiC-based cermet hemisphere couples are widely used as dry sliding bearing and gyro due to its high resistance to wear and heat. To enhance the grinding precision, this paper presents an ultraprecision grinding technique for machining TiC-based cermet hemisphere couples. The factors affecting the form and dimension accuracy of the hemisphere couples in ultraprecision grinding were analyzed theoretically. The optimization of grinding conditions and ground surface morphology of TiC-based cermets were investigated. In addition, the subsurface damage of ground TiC-based cermet hemisphere couples was observed by focused ion beam FIB. The research results show that position errors have more significant impact on concave in grinding of hemisphere couples. The TiC-based cermet ground surface revealed a smooth surface covered by micropits, traces, and reliefs because of the special material properties, and the surface roughness could be improved by the decrease of feed rate, while the different feed rates did not influence form accuracy. Finally, TiC-based cermet hemisphere couples with 16 nm surface roughness, 0.3 μm PV form accuracy, radius deviation of less than 3 μm, and subsurface damage depth of less than 2.5 μm were obtained.     

核主泵用流体静压密封环圆锥面超精密磨削

提出采用工件旋转杯形砂轮切入磨削原理来加工核主泵用流体静压密封环圆锥面新方法,对密封环圆锥面的径向轮廓误差随砂轮半径、回转台与砂轮中心距,砂轮俯仰角、砂轮侧偏角的变化规律进行深入分析,发现选择适当的机床结构参数,采用工件旋转杯形砂轮切入磨削原理加工核主泵用流体静压密封环圆锥面时,由磨削原理引入的径向轮廓误差极小,为纳米量级。根据最小径向轮廓误差和最小磨削接触弧长原则确定了核主泵用流体静压密封环圆锥面的超精密磨削实现策略。在工件旋转杯形砂轮切入磨削机床上实现了核主泵用碳化硅密封环圆锥面的高精度、低表面粗糙度磨削,测得周向跳动、径向轮廓误差和表面粗糙度Ra分别为0.16 m、0.15 m和3 nm。     

超硬微结构表面模具的精密磨削加工技术

针对超硬模具材料,研究磨削方式(顺磨和逆磨)、进给率和主轴转速等磨削参数对磨削后微结构表面的表面粗糙度和尖锐部分完整性的影响规律.基于磨削结果,对微结构表面质量不均一现象以及微结构表面磨削过程中的砂轮磨损分布进行研究.试验结果表明磨削后的微结构侧表面粗糙度小于底面粗糙度.采用逆磨可以获得更低的粗糙度和更加完整、锋利的尖锐部分.磨削后的表面粗糙度随着进给率的降低而减小,当进给率为0.2 mm·min-1时,微结构底面平均表面粗糙度Ra89 nm,侧面为Ra 60nm.磨削后,尖锐部分圆弧半径随进给率的降低呈现减小趋势,当进给率为0.5 mm·min-1时,其平均圆弧半径最小,为0.67 μm.主轴转速对表面粗糙度和尖锐部分圆弧半径的影响不大.由阶梯光栅表面结构性引起的,相对于其各个表面的磨削轨迹不相同,是导致磨削后阶梯光栅表面质量不均一现象主要原因.在微结构表面的磨削加工过程中,相对于砂轮的径向和轴向磨损,砂轮的形貌磨损更为严重.     

Subsurface crystal lattice deformation machined by ultraprecision grinding of soft-brittle CdZnTe crystals

Cd_0.96Zn_0.04Te (111) single crystals were ultraprecisely ground by #1500, #3000, and #5000 diamond grinding wheels, and the corresponding surface roughness Ra is 49.132, 18.746, and 5.762 nm. High-resolution field emission scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope were employed to investigate the surface and subsurface damage. After ultraprecision grinding by three kinds of diamond wheels, the subsurface can achieve ultra-low damage layer with thickness of 1–2 nm made of amorphous state material and lattice distortion layer. For the #1500 precision grinding, the subsurface damage is mainly multi-nanocrystal with diameter in the range of 5–20 nm. While for the #3000 precision grinding, the subsurface damage is made of amorphous state material containing nanocrystals with diameter mainly in the range of 2–5 nm, and the bending deformation is mainly conducted through dislocation pleat formation. For #5000 ultraprecision grinding, the subsurface damage is mainly amorphous state material, and nanocrystals with diameter in the range of 2–5 nm enrich adjacent to the ground surface. Moreover, the size of nanocrystal ground by #5000 diamond grinding wheel is mainly 2 nm. Fracture mechanism ground by #5000 diamond grinding wheel firstly turns onto thin amorphous state film, then fracture.     

Planar nanogrinding of a fine grained WC-Co composite for an optical surface finish

Nanogrinding of a fine-grained WC-Co composite was developed to achieve an optical quality surface without further polishing. Direct planar grinding was conducted with a CNC grinding machine using a metal-bond diamond wheel of grit size of 15 μm, under the nanogrinding conditions selected. The ground planar surfaces were examined using laser and optical interferometry, atomic force microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy to measure flatness, surface roughness, and surface integrity as a function of grinding conditions. Damage-free, planar mirror surfaces with a flatness (peak-to-valley, PV) at the submicron scale and surface roughness <5 nm R_a were obtained.     

Study on the mechanism and the suppression method of wrinkling in side wall using hydroforming of the fairing

Ultrasonic assisted grinding (UAG) is an outstanding technology suitable to machine advanced ceramics. During UAG, the effect of ultrasonic vibration on grinding process is mainly determined by matching performance between grinding and vibration parameters in theory. However, this problem is still lack of deep study. With an objective to study the matching performance deeply, conventional grinding (CG) and UAG tests were conducted. The effects of grinding parameters on grinding force, ground surface profile wave, and ground surface roughness between UAG and CG were studied. The results showed that the grinding force, ground surface profile wave height, and ground surface roughness during UAG were reduced in varying degrees compared to CG. Additionally, the reduction percentage that means the effect of ultrasonic vibration on grinding process decreased significantly with increasing grinding speed while affected slightly by increasing of feedrate and grinding depth. To deeply analyze this variety law of the ultrasonic vibration effect during UAG, a matching performance equation referred to grinding wheel diameter, grinding, and vibration parameters is proposed. When the grinding speed increases from 1.26 to 31.5 m/s for feedrate of 100 mm/min and grinding depth of 5 μm, reduction percentage in grinding force for UAG compared to CG (K _F) decreases from about 20 to 4 % and in ground surface roughness (K _R) decreases from 35 to 4 %. With regard to the average difference height (Δh) between the UAG and CG profile waves, it decreases from 2.77 μm almost to zero.     

细粒度金刚石砂轮超精密磨削硅片的表面质量

为实现硅片高质量表面的超精密磨削，研究了5000目、8000目和30 000目金刚石砂轮磨削硅片的表面质量。利用数学模型预测了硅片磨削表面的粗糙度Ra并对预测结果进行了试验验证，分析了硅片磨削表面的形貌特征；通过磨床主轴电机的电流变化对比分析了5000目、8000目和30 000目砂轮磨削过程中的磨削力变化趋势。研究结果表明：8000目砂轮磨削后的单晶硅表面粗糙度Ra小于10 nm,亚表面损伤深度小于150 nm,磨削过程中的磨削力稳定，磨削质量优于5000目砂轮，磨削过程的稳定性优于30 000目砂轮。     

A new variable structure sliding mode control strategy for FTS in diamond-cutting microstructured surfaces

There was a serious cutting force disturbance in diamond-cutting microstructured surfaces with fast tool servo (FTS) resulting from their discontinuous profile. Although variable structure sliding mode control (VSSMC) strategy with exponential approaching law for FTS can suppress cutting force disturbance to a certain extent in machining process, high machined surface quality was hardly obtained because of the disadvantage of the exponential approaching law. A new VSSMC strategy with a combined approaching law for FTS was presented in this paper. A series of validating experiments were performed in unload and cutting situation respectively. The experimental results showed that the VSSMC with combined approaching law had an obvious advantage in FTS tracking performance over that with exponential approaching law. The system steady-state error was decreased from ±2 to ±0.5 %, and the system rise time was reduced from 2 to 0.8 ms. Measured results of the square-pit microstructured surfaces fabricated by two different strategies showed that a decrease of 10–30 % in the machined surface roughness and an improvement of more than 10 % in the profile accuracy were accomplished by the proposed strategy.     

Statistical analysis for the generating mechanism of ground surface roughness

This paper discusses a statistical approach for determining the roughness of a ground surface by considering the dressing characteristics of the grinding wheel.The statistical analyses are derived for the distribution curve of the cutting edges and the probability density function for the occurrence of “peaks” throughout the surface profile of the grinding wheel after dressing treatment and the root mean square roughness of the workpiece surface ground by the wheel. The theory shows that when the grinding wheel is repeatedly dressed by a sharp-pointed dresser, the distribution curve of cutting edges is parabolic. The root mean square of the surface ground by the cutting edges may be calculated from wheel speed, wheel diameter, workpiece speed, the apical angle of the dresser, size sample and the distribution of cutting edges on the circumferential direction of wheel. Good agreement was found between theoretically calculated and experimental results.     

Effect of Transverse Current Injection on the Grinding of Cemented Carbide

Cemented carbide (WC-Co) samples with dimensions of 5 20 mm 3 were ground using a reciprocating table surface grinding machine. Direct electrical current with densities of 0–120 A cm _2 were injected along the length of the sample during grinding. The hardness, structure, and composition of the processed surfaces were examined using Vickers indentation, profilometry, metallographic optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), with scattered electrons (SE), backscattered electrons (BSE) and energy dispersive specroscopy (EDS). The surface roughness increased up to a factor of 2.6 at J = 60 A cm _2 at a cutting depth of 0.06 mm, and the microhardness increased up to 28% with J = 120 A cm _2 at a depth of cut 0.06 mm, in comparison with samples ground without injected current. The atomic concentration ratio WC/Co increased by a factor of 2 at the surface and decreased by a factor of 5 at a depth of 3 _m, when the injected current density was 60 A cm _2 .     

Research on surface integrity of grinding Inconel718

Inconel718 is widely used in the aerospace industry; the finished surface quality has significant effect on service performance of component. The surface integrity in grinding Inconel718 respectively by using a vitrified bond single alumina (SA) wheel and a resin cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheel were investigated. First, effects of different grinding parameters on grinding temperature and grinding force and grinding chips feature by using a SA and a CBN wheel respectively were investigated. Then, the surface roughness and topography by using a SA and a CBN wheel through single factor experiment were compared, and in the grinding parameters range of the present study, the better surface can be obtained by a SA wheel. Finally, surface integrity by using a SA wheel and the different grinding depth was studied and analyzed by the grinding temperature and the grinding force. It was possible to conclude that better surface can be achieved by using a SA, and taking a _p?=?0.005 mm, v _w?=?16 m/min, v _s?=?25 m/s for grinding Inconel718. In this grinding case, the surface roughness was Ra0.112 μm, the surface residual stress was +700Mpa, and the surface hardness was 440 HV; the depth of residual stress layer was 40～60 μm, the depth of softened layer was 30～40 μm and the depth of plastic deformation layer was 10～15 μm.     

Ceramic Response to High Speed Grinding

Material response was investigated with respect to normal grinding forces, surface roughness, and removal mechanisms in grinding of alumina, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and zircona with a resin-bond 160 μm grit diamond wheel at the grinding speeds of upto 160 m/s. The results reveal that the normal grinding forces decreased significantly with an increase in grinding speed; they also increased substantially with an increase in a complex relation of the ceramic hardness and toughness. High speed grinding produced a reduction in surface roughness for silicon carbide and alumina but gave no improvement for zirconia and silicon nitride. Also the surface roughness in high speed grinding was found to be material-dependent that the ground silicon nitride exhibited much smoother than the other ground ceramics. The influence of grinding speed on material removal mechanisms was analyzed in terms of grinding geometry and ceramic material properties.     

光学自由曲面反射镜模芯的镜面成型磨削

采用精密修锐修整的圆弧形粗金刚石砂轮在CNC精密磨床上进行了数控成型磨削加工,实现了高效镜面磨削。分析金刚石砂轮圆弧形轮廓的成型修整原理,建立了圆弧形修整的数控模式。通过建立曲面数控成型磨削的行走轨迹算法,实现了自由曲面的圆弧包络成型磨削加工。分析了磨削工艺参数和砂轮出刃形貌参数与超光滑表面形成的作用机制,进行了镜面磨削试验并检测表面微观形貌和粗糙度,分析实现镜面磨削的脆/塑性磨削转换机理。理论分析表明,降低砂轮行走速度,提高砂轮转速以及改善出刃形貌可以获得纳米级粗糙度的超光滑磨削表面。试验结果显示,先将砂轮修锐修整再控制砂轮行走速度小至15 mm/min时,表面粗糙度小于10 nm以下,且微观加工表面没有发生脆性破坏,形成镜面。加工高速钢自由曲面时,面形误差(PV值)可以达到10 μm以下,表面粗糙度R_a可以达到约16 nm。实验结果表明:利用数控技术和粗金刚石砂轮可以实现自由曲面模芯的高效镜面磨削加工,保证了高精度的光学自由曲面反射镜注塑模芯。     

Evaluation of surface roughness based on monochromatic speckle correlation using image processing

The measurement of roughness on machined surfaces is of great importance for manufacturing industries as the roughness of a surface has a considerable influence on its quality and function of products. In this paper, an experimental approach for surface roughness measurement based on the coherent speckle scattering pattern caused by a laser beam on the machined surfaces (grinding and milling) is presented. Speckle is the random pattern of bright and dark regions that is observed when a surface is illuminated with a highly or partially coherent light beam. When the illuminating beam is reflected from a surface, the optical path difference between various wavelets with different wavelength would result in interference showing up as a granular pattern of intensity termed as speckle. The properties of this speckle pattern are used for estimation/quantification of roughness parameters. For measurement of surface roughness, initially the speckle patterns formed are filtered in the spatial frequency domain. The optical technique, namely spectral speckle correlation (autocorrelation) is utilized in this work for the measurement of roughness on machined surfaces. It has been observed that the pattern formed is dependent on the roughness of the illuminated surface. For example, a rough surface (milled) shows a small central bright region with a rapid decrease in intensity towards the edges, while a smooth surface (ground) shows a large central bright region with gradually decreasing intensity towards the edges. The complete methodology and analysis for quantification/estimation of surface finish of milled and ground surfaces based on speckle images that could be implemented in practice, is presented in this paper.     

Experimental observations on surface roughness, chip morphology, and tool wear behavior in machining Fe-based amorphous alloy overlay for remanufacture

Fe-based amorphous alloy, a new-type material, was developed as a special-purpose welt overlay for remanufacture. It was deposited on the worn-out part for resuming and upgrading part performance. The microstructure characteristics of the overlay was characterized, including microstructure, phase composition, thermostability, and microhardness. In order to get a comprehensive insight to the machining process of amorphous overlay, this paper presents an experimental investigation into the effect of various machining parameters and tool geometry (Edge) on the surface roughness, tool wear, chip morphology, and surface damage. Comparing larger rake angle of 15°and smaller nose radius of 0.4 mm with 5° and 0.8 mm at the same cutting parameters, we found that larger rake angle of 15° and smaller nose radius of 0.4 mm increased the R _a surface roughness parameter. In the tests, crater wear was not observed, and the friction and wear on the minor cutting edge wear were heavy due to the spring back of the machined surface. In brief,abrasion, adhesion, fatigue, and chipping are the main wear mechanism. As the feed rate reduced and the depth of cut increased (from feed rate?=?0.06 mm/rev and depth of cut?=?0.3 mm to feed rate?=?0.09 mm/rev and depth of cut?=?0.2 mm), a number of physical changes occurred in the chip including reduced distance between serrations, increased shear band angle, and changed chip morphology from spiral to ribbon shape. The results show that strain and strain rate rises in the chips’ inside with the increase in cutting temperature. When the thermal softening exceeded strain hardening, the shear resistance decreased rapidly. Thus, the free surface of the chip presents the nodular and lamella structure. It was noted that specimens generated by larger rake angle of 15° and smaller nose radius of 0.4 mm showed poor surface roughness as well as extensive surface damage.     

Surface finishing: Impact on tribological characteristics of WC–Co hardmetals

Flat samples of WC–Co hardmetals with 6–12 wt%Co were surface finished by grinding, polishing and wire-electro-discharge machining (EDM). Comparative dry reciprocating sliding experiments against WC–6 wt%Co pins were performed using a Plint TE77 tribometer. Tribological characteristics were recorded online. Wear surfaces were characterized by surface scanning topography and scanning electron microscopy. Wire-EDM’ed samples exhibited higher friction and wear compared to ground and polished equivalents. This trend was correlated to X-ray diffraction measurements revealing tensile residual surface stresses in WC after wire-EDM contrary to compressive surface stresses after grinding and polishing. However, finer executed EDM reduces friction and wear significantly.     

ABRASIVE MACHINING OF GLASS-INFILTRATED ALUMINA WITH DIAMOND BURS

The abrasive machining characteristics of a glass-infiltrated alumina used for fabrication of all-ceramic dental crowns were investigated using a high-speed dental handpiece and diamond burs with different grit sizes. The material removal rate, surface roughness, and extent of edge chipping were measured as a function of grit size. The removal rate decreased substantially with decreasing bur grit size from supercoarse (180 μm) to fine (40 μm) and ultrafine (10 μm). The removal rate with the supercoarse burs was approximately twice that achieved with the fine burs and four times the removal rate with the ultrafine burs. Both surface roughness and edge chipping damage were sensitive to diamond grit size. Chipping damage was severe and the surface roughness substantial with the supercoarse burs, while negligible edge chipping and smooth surfaces were obtained with the ultrafine burs. The removal rate also decreased with continued machining for all grit sizes. The observed reduction in removal rate was found to be primarily due to wear of the diamond grit and accumulation of debris on the bur (i.e., bur loading). After prolonged use, a significant loss of diamond grit was observed that led to a substantial loss of cutting efficiency. It is concluded that, with respect to material removal rate and surface integrity, diamond machining is a feasible machining process for glass-infiltrated alumina in the final infiltrated state. However, caution should be exercised in the use of diamond grit larger than 40 μm. Such burs may result in excessively rough surfaces, chipped edges, and strength limiting surface and subsurface microcracks.     

HARD TURNING PLUS GRINDING–A COMBINATION TO OBTAIN GOOD SURFACE INTEGRITY IN AISI O1 TOOL STEEL MACHINED PARTS

The establishment of adequate machining guidelines requires the study of several factors (residual stresses, roughness, hardness, microstructural changes, etc.) that define the surface integrity generated in the part by a machining operation. This work studies the surface integrity generated in AISI O1 tool steel by four hard turning (conventional, laser assisted, MQL and conventional with worn tool) and two grinding (production and finishing) processes, as well as by a combined machining process (conventional hard turning + finishing grinding). Hard turning generates tensile stresses and strong structural changes in the machined surface while grinding causes compressive stresses and negligible structural changes. Below the surface, grinding generates slightly tensile or nearly null stresses whereas turning generates strong compressive stresses. The results obtained show that an optimum machining process would imply the combination of hard turning plus a slight final grinding.