Sonoluminescence：an IRaser creating cold fusion neutrons？

Sonluminescence can be explained by treating the bubbles as IRasers with standing waves in resonance with the bubble dimensions.Since the IRaser resonant radiation is required to satisfy wave boundary conditions,the water molecules lining the bubble walls undergo a continuous population inversion conditions,the water molecules lining the bubble walls undergo a continuous population inversion as the bubble collapses.By stimulated processes,the Planck energy accumulates as the KbT energy of radiation photons is pumped from the surroundings through the rotational state of the water molecule.Bubble collapse occurs almost isothermally with the high IR absorptivity of the water molecule permitting the Planck energy to accumulate to 2-6eV only to be released by VIS-UV photon emission because of the low absorptivity of water at VIS-UV frequencies.As the IRaser cavity dimensions collapse to the spacing between water molecules at liquid density,soft X-rays at about 2keV are predicted.But,this is less than 10keV necessary for cold fusion so that no neutrons is directly expected yet.Therefore,it is suggested that UV laser enhancement is used to accumulate further bubble collapse energy.     

Sonoluminescence and the probability of isothermal bubble collapse

Computations of air bubble collapse dynamics usually neglect thermal conduction.but recent computations show about a 3-fold reduction in bubble gas temperature if thermal conduction is included.However,an isothermal collapse at ambient temperature is even more likely because the air molecuses collide with and stick to the bubble walls during bubble expansion and are not available for compression heating during collapse.The probability of isothermal collapse is shown to depend on the mean free path of the air molecules moving through the H2O vapor molecules within the bullbe during bubble expansion and is sensitive to the lowering of ambinet temperature to the freezing point.     

Neutron sources and spectra from cold fusion

Deterministic methods are used to calculate the neutron and photon sources and spectra that would develop if fusion reactions were occurring in cold fusion experimental devices. The results from the calculations give the neutron and gamma spectra resulting from a 2.45-MeV and a 14.1 MeV neutron source. The neutron source strength from certain (gamma,n) and (alpha,n) reactions are also determined.     

冷聚变实验探索

采用电解法和氘气吸附法研究了冷聚变现象。在一次电解实验中,电解开始后约90h,长中子计算器和液体闪烁中子计数器中都同时观察到一个持续时间达4h、峰值强度为400聚变/s的中子讯号。长中子计数器和液体闪烁计数器的计数均比本底高15倍,液体闪烁计数器同时记录了2.45MeV中子的反冲质子能谱。     

Magnetic fields in the Planck theory of sonoluminescence

Sonoluminescence(SL) observed in the cavitation of water may be explained by the Planck theory of SL that treats the bubbles as collapsing miniature masers having optical waves standing in resonance with the dimensions of bubble cavity,Microwaves are created from the Planck energy of the standing waves provided the bubble wall may be treated as a perfect blackbody surface.In the ultraviolet,liquid H2O is srongly absorbent and the bubble approaches a Planck blackbody enclosure.The micrwaves are created at frequencies proportional to the bubble collapse velocity and are absorbed by the dipoles of the H2O and other bubble wall molecules.Intense electric fields develop as the liquid H2O bubble wall undergoes dielectric polarization.By this theory,free electrons are created in SL as the electric fields breakdown;the presence of free electrons is required if any magnetic field effect is to be observed in SL.Both local and global magnetic effects on SL are described.The local effect is based on the magnetic pressure due to the electrons moving as currents inside the bubble.The global effect is an accumulatio of local effects at the voids throughout the liquid H2O causing a reduction in the bulk modulus.Numerical solutions of the Rayleigh-Plesset(R-P) equation are presented that show the effect of applied magnetic field on SL to be the global effect causing a reduction in the bulk modulus.Consistent with the Planck theory of SL,the R-P simulations show the suppression of Sl intensity with magentic field to be parabolic and the SL intensity to be linear with collapse velocity.     

More searches for cold fusion

Following the announcement of cold nuclear fusion being observed in electrochemical cells by Fleischmann and Pons¹ and by Jones,² we have searched for the characteristic radiations of thed+d andp+d fusion reactions in cells similar to those described in Refs. 1 and 2. No fusion product neutrons or gamma rays have been observed from either palladium or titanium cathodes. From measured D/Pd ratios in the systems with the palladium cathodes, we set upper limits on the fusion rates for our systems.     

First experimental results at the gran sasso laboratory on cold nuclear fusion in titanium electrodes

We present here the first results obtained at the Gran Sasso Laboratory on the neutron emission following the electrolytic infusion of deuterons into titanium electrodes. The measurements were carried out under a 4000-m water equivalent rock thickness, i.e., in an extremely reduced cosmic-radiation background. The neutrons were detected by proton-recoil liquid scintillation detectors, allowing a huge reduction of the local gamma-ray background. The results obtained provide a neutron emission rate comparable in size to the one recently reported by Joneset al. in an electrolysis experiment performed with a different apparatus in ordinary laboratory conditions. They provide more evidence in favor of low-level cold nuclear fusions in metals.     

Search for cold fusion at D/Pd > 1 using ion implantation

Deuterium was introduced into palladium at atomic ratios greater than one by means of ion implantation at cryogenic temperatures, and a search was made for energetic charged particles from D-D nuclear reactions. Concentrations as high as 1.6 D/Pd were produced by 10 keV implantation at temperatures of 41 and 81 K, and the occurrence of lattice supersaturation in the Pd deuteride was indicated by a new, low-temperature stage of D redistribution. Fifteen hours of observation at low temperatures yielded no indication of energetic charged particles due to the reaction D(d,p)T or other nuclear processes. This result implies an approximate upper bound of 10^–21 events/s per D atom on the reaction rate in the supersaturated deuteride. Negative results were also obtained for D-implanted zirconium and titanium.     

Design considerations for palladium electrodes as suggested by a deuteron cluster model for cold nuclear fusion

According to our hypothetical model, the essential element for the occurrence of cold nuclear fusion within palladium is the formation of deuteron clusters within the palladium electrodes. There are several factors which can affect the size, density, and rate of cluster formation. These factors are (1) the presence of diffusion barriers at all upstream palladium surfaces that are not immersed in the electrolyte, and which also are not exposed to a sufficiently large electric field to prevent deuteron diffusion from the electrode, (2) the direction and magnitude of the electric field relative to the crystalline lattice, (3) local crystalline temperature excursions that are associated with the fusion events, and (4) the various deuterium diffusion mechanisms within the crystal which are associated with thermal gradients, deuterium concentration gradients, and externally-generated potential field gradients that can enhance interstitial quantum mechanical tunneling along the direction of the associated internal electric field.     

Preliminary investigation of possible low-temperature fusion

Preliminary tests have been made with electrolytic cells utilizing 0.2N LiOD in D₂O as the electrolyte and a palladium cathode surrounded by a wire-wound platinum anode operating at cathode current densities of 100–400 mA/cm². The cathodes were swaged to diameters of 2.8 or 5.5 mm with 8.5 cm of active length. The electrolyte temperature was controlled, heat was removed by flowing water in a cooling jacket, and the cell was insulated. Cooling water and electrolyte temperatures were measured by thermocouples, and neutron and gamma-ray spectra were recorded. The electrolyte level was periodically monitored and replenished with D₂O. Tests up to 2 weeks in duration were made with no sustained release of energy in excess of the electrical power input, although there was one period of 12 h when an unaccountable heat excess was observed. In another test, an anomalous neutron flux was measured during the first few hours that was 3.5 standard deviations above the background.     

Search for cold fusion using Pd-D2O cells and Ti-D mixtures

We have searched for cold fusion produced in an electrolytic cell with Pd cathode and Pt anode. The electrolyte was 0.1 molar LiOD in 99.8% D₂O. A 2-mm rod of polycrystalline Pd and a 4-mm rod of single crystal Pd were used. No radiation was detected above background by a BF₃ neutron and Ge -X detector. The D₂ loading of the Pd was 0.8 D per Pd atom reaching saturation after 4 hours. We also attempted to duplicate the work of Scaramuzzi and co-workers on the Ti-D₂ system. Both powder and pieces of Ti were used. The material was cycled several times between 1100 K and 77 K. No neutron, - or x-ray emission above background was observed. The results of a barrier penetration calculation for H-like atoms are presented. The high fusion rates reported for PdD _x . are much larger than those expected from theoretical calculations on these systems.This work supported by USDOE under Contract nos. W-7405-ENG-82 and DE-FG02-87ER40371.     

ULTRASOUND INDUCED AND LASER ENHANCED COLD FUSION CHEMISTRY

The standard model of sonoluminescence suggests that the coulomb barrer to deuterium fusion may be overcome by high bubble gas temperatures caused by compression heating if the bubble diameter remains spherical during bubble collapse.However,in the more likely collapse geometry of a pancake shape,the temperature rise in the bubbles is negligible.But the collapsing pancake bubble is fund to significantly increase the frequency of the infrared energy available in the vibrational state of the water molecules at ambient temperature.For a collapse to liquied density,ultraviolet radiation at about 10eV is fund.Although the ultraviolet radiation is of a low intensity,higher intensities may be possible if the bubble collapse is enhanced by visible and infrared lases.Neither hot nor cold fusion is predicted in bubble collapse but the ultraviolet energy at about 10eV developed in the bubble is sufficient to provide the basis for a new field of chemistry called ultrasound induced and laser enhanced cold fusion chemistry.     

New cold nuclear fusion theory and experimental tests

A theory of neutron-induced tritium-deuterium fusion at room temperature is developed, based entirely on previously measured cross-sections of known nuclear reactions. The fusion process involves self-sustaining chain reactions: (1)n+⁶Li ⁴He+T and/orn+⁷Li⁴He+T+n, and (2) T+D ⁴He+n, in Li-D plasma or pellet surrounded by Li and other blankets and by neutron reflectors. The recent results of cold deuterium fusion reported by Fleischmann, Pons, and Hawkins are described in terms of this fusion process. Experimental evidence and tests of the chain reaction hypothesis are described.     

Cold fusion experiment at Department of Nuclear Engineering,National Tsing-Hua University

We have repeated the so-called cold fusion experiment by electrolyzing heavy water, with 0.1M LiOD, with palladium rod as the cathode and platinum wire as the anode. The purpose of our experiment is to dectect the neutrons that are produced from the fusion process of deuterium if fusion does occur. We use one³He detector and one BF₃ detector to detect the thermal neutrons coming out of the water bath that surrounds the heavy water cell. Possible neutron bursts are detected by the³He detector during a period of about 7 h after electrolyzing for 11 days.     

Search for cold fusion in plasma-charged Pd-D and Ti-D systems

To investigate whether cold fusion of deuterium (D) can occur in solid Pd and Ti as proposed recently, we have searched for the D-D fusion reaction in plasma-charged Pd-D and Ti-D. In a small reaction cell, a DC glow-discharge was established in a deuterium gas between two electrodes, with a Pd or Ti sample placed on the cathode. A thin (50 Å) Cu film was evaporated on the surface of the Pd samples to establish a barrier reducing the escape of D from the samples. Neutrons were detected with a liquid scintillator, and conventional pulse-shape discrimination technique was employed to distinguish gamma counts from neutron counts. No indication for a neutron count rate in excess of the natural background level was observed.     

Cold fusion—Engineering perspectives

Considerable heat was liberated from a palladium-deuterium (Pd-D) system and this was attributed to cold nuclear fusion of deuterium within the palladium lattice.¹ The primary source of heat in cold fusion was proposed to be the work-of-fracture of cracks in the Pd electrodes, and the mechanism for crack initiation and propagation was identified as deuterium or hydrogen embrittlement.² In this paper, comparable characteristics of cold fusion and embrittlement are established, relevant aspects of the extensive engineering database on hydrogen and deuterium embrittlement are reviewed, some areas of study and applications of the cold fusion process are identified, and parameters for controlling the ignition and heat release from metals are specified.This and related works have been fully sponsored by the author.     

Cold fusion — The heat mechanism

The assumption that deuterium, and not palladium, is the fuel in the Pons-Fleischmann experiments led to high expectations of cold nuclear fusion. The conversion of mechanical energy to heat was neglected in studying the phenomenon. Considerable strain energy is stored in metals when processed from the ore. The initiation, growth, and propagation of cracks in the bulk disturb the energy balance within the metal. Deuterium induces and propagates cracks in metals and alloys, including palladium. The sudden discharge of fracture energy during crack propagation generates considerable heat. The abundance of deuterium in cracked palladium will not continue the heat-generation process. The confident figures-of-merit of cold fusion have been based on the small energy input to the electrolytic cells and do not consider the substantial energy required to process (by melting) the palladium from the ore, or to recycle the cracked electrode samples. In this paper, the work-of-fracture is shown to be the likely mechanism responsible for the excess heat in cold fusion.This and related work have been fully sponsored by the author; Technical Consultant, 2868 Spring Chapel Court, Herndon, Virginia 22071.     

金属电极间冷聚变中量子效应分析

分析了金属电极间的冷聚变现象,采用量子力学方法,导出在微观外场作用下反应核的穿透几率以及相应的核聚变截面公式,阐释了在核聚变中也存在共振隧穿现象,并给出了冷聚变实验结果的半定量解释,从而提出了一种新的聚变机理。     

Dynamical screening of potential by mobile deuteron and fusion rate of accelerated deuteron in PdDx

The Coulomb potential between deuterons in the PdDx deutende is dynamically screened by the mobile deuterons as well as the electrons. The screening effect by the mobile deuteron at low temperatures is substantial. When the all deuterons become mobile, the fusion rate observed by Jones et al. can be achieved using the classical formula for the ion polarization function, however, the rate using the quantum mechanical formula becomes 10^–6–10^–7 times smaller than the classical one. By the small increase in deuteron energy, of the order of a few electron volts, the fusion rate in PdDx deuteride increases substantially. But after about 10 eV of deuteron energy, the fusion rate does not increase at such a high rate as it does in the low-energy region. The fusion rate observed by Jones et al. might be explained by the acceleration of the deuteron by the electric field created in the domain boundary between the region containing the deuteron and the region without the deuteron or by the avalanche-type propagation of the fracture.     

Peregrinations on cold fusion

Attention is focused on the possibility of resonance-enhanced deuteron Coulomb barrier penetration. Because of the many-body nature of the interactions of room-temperature deuterons diffusing through a lattice possessing deuterons in many of the interstitial positions, the diffusing deuterons can resonate on the atomic scale in the potential wells bounded by the ascending walls of adjacent Coulomb barriers and thereby penetrate the Coulomb barriers in a fashion vastly underestimated by two-body calculations in which wells for possible resonance are absent. Indeed, perhaps the lack of robust reproducibility in cold fusion originates from the narrowness of such transmission resonances.