Recruitment issues in school-based research: lessons learned from the High 5 Alabama Project

School-based research requires a multi-level recruitment process to ensure an adequate sample. This article describes the High 5 Alabama recruitment experience at four levels; district, school, classroom and individual. One hundred percent of 28 schools across three districts and 108 classroom teachers contacted agreed to participate. Moderate success (69%) at the individual level, which required active parental consent for the student and parent to participate, resulted in 1,698 student/parent participants. An examination of differences between participants and nonparticipants revealed under-representation of a subsample of the population in the project sample. Suggestions obtained from project staff and teachers intended to enhance future school-based recruitment strategies include enlistment of a district advocate; meeting with teachers to solicit support; using incentives with students and teachers; direct contact with parents; having teachers keep rosters of students returning consent forms; and tailoring recruitment strategies for specific subpopulations.     

A process evaluation of condom availability in the Seattle, Washington public schools

In 1993, Seattle began making condoms available in all of its 15 high schools. As part of an evaluation of this program, 16 focus groups with students from 13 high schools were conducted to explore students' perceptions of the school environment, program effectiveness, and suggestions for program improvement. The study also included data from a student survey conducted in 10 high schools. The focus group results revealed that students support school condom availability but have concerns about privacy when obtaining condoms. Students prefer obtaining condoms from baskets in private areas of school-based clinics to obtaining them from vending machines. Students do not believe that having condoms available has affected sexual activity or condom use among students. Recommendations for improving school condom availability include access to free condoms in private locations.     

Testing mediating variables in a school-based nutrition intervention program.

This study identified mediators of a school-based nutrition intervention for 4th graders and their parents. Nine variables were tested for satisfying 4 conclusions necessary to establish mediation of intervention effects on changes in fruit and vegetable consumption (FVC) in 4th graders (N=1,676). FVC was measured in children by the use of 24-hr dietary recalls. Mediators were assessed by the use of questionnaires completed by children and parents. All 4 conclusions were met for positive outcome expectancies. Knowledge, self-efficacy, and parent consumption satisfied the first 3 conclusions for mediation but the mediating effects were not statistically significant (Conclusion 4). Future mediational analyses and the creation of a national database of mediators are crucial for increasing strength and efficiency of school-based nutrition programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family Involvement Questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education.

The study developed and evaluated the Family Involvement Questionnaire (FIQ), a multidimensional scale of family involvement in early childhood education. The FIQ was guided by theory and coconstructed with parents and teachers in preschool, kindergarten, and 1st-grade programs in a large urban school district. Demographic and FIQ data were collected from 641 parents. Factor analyses revealed 3 involvement constructs: school-based involvement, home-school conferencing, and home-based involvement. Multivariate analyses of demographic and program differences in these constructs revealed that parents with education beyond high school were engaged in higher levels of school-based involvement and home-school conferencing than parents with less than high school education. There were higher levels of home-school conferencing and home-based involvement in 2-parent families than in single-parent households. Head Start evidenced the highest levels of school-based involvement activity. However, higher school-based contact was not associated with higher levels of home-school conferencing or home-based involvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School-based prevention of depression and anxiety symptoms in early adolescence: A pilot of a parent intervention component.

Previous studies suggest that school-based cognitive-behavioral interventions can reduce and prevent depressive symptoms in youth. This pilot study investigated the effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioral depression prevention program, the Penn Resiliency Program for Children and Adolescents (the PRP-CA), when combined with a parent intervention component. Forty-four middle school students and their parents were randomly assigned to the enhanced PRP (the PRP-CA plus parent program) or control conditions. Students completed measures of depression and anxiety symptoms at baseline and 2 weeks, 6 months, and 1 year after the intervention ended. The combined version of the PRP significantly reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety during the follow-up period. Children assigned to the intervention condition were less likely than controls to report clinical levels of anxiety symptoms. Findings suggest that school-based cognitive-behavioral interventions that include parents may prevent depression and anxiety symptoms in early adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Myocardial length-force relationship in end stage dilated cardiomyopathy and normal human myocardium: analysis of intact and skinned left ventricular trabeculae obtained during 11 heart transplantations

PURPOSE: This study explores the relationships between social, demographic, and behavioral characteristics and self-reported carrying of a weapon to school among middle school students. The results provide a statistical profile of youth most likely to bring weapons to school and help to identify characteristics that are only spuriously related to this behavior. METHODS: Study respondents were part of an ongoing randomized evaluation of a school-based drug use prevention program in Illinois. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 1,503 seventh and eighth graders in the spring of 1992. RESULTS: Fifteen percent of respondents brought some type of weapon to school in the past month. In a multivariate logistic regression model, being male, not living with both parents, not feeling close to parents, drinking heavily, participating in fights, damaging school property, and perceiving that at least a few other students brought weapons to school, were significantly associated with weapon carrying. Victimization and fear for safety in school were not significantly associated with weapon carrying in the multivariate model. CONCLUSIONS: Study results suggest that both the structure and the dynamics of the family play an important role in weapon carrying behavior. Weapon carrying also appears to cluster with other deviant behaviors. Furthermore, the findings suggest that weapons are not brought to school because of a heightened need for protection, but rather may be in response to normative influences in school.     

Adolescents' perceptions of substance abuse prevention strategies

As part of a 3-year evaluation of substance abuse prevention strategies (Harding, Safer, Kavanagh, Bania, Carty, Lisnov, & Wysockey, 1996), this study examined the perceptions of 719 sixth- through ninth-grade Chicago public school students. School-based programs were rated as significantly more effective on six prevention objectives than were television ads, testimonials by famous people, billboards, and print ads displayed on public transportation. Students perceived the two school-based programs, Project DARE (a national program conducted through local police departments) and Captain Clean (an intense live theater program coordinated with student participation), as being equally effective overall, although the interactive theater program was rated as significantly better at encouraging students to talk about their feelings concerning substance abuse issues and at relating to the students' ethnic/racial backgrounds. When students were categorized according to frequency of alcohol use, nonusers, infrequent users, and frequent users differed significantly in their ratings of the school-based programs.     

Parents' motivations for involvement in children's education: An empirical test of a theoretical model of parental involvement.

This study examined the ability of a theoretical model to predict types and levels of parental involvement during the elementary and middle school years. Predictor variables included parents' motivational beliefs about involvement, perceptions of invitations to involvement from others, and perceived life context variables. Analyses of responses from 853 parents of 1st- through 6th-grade students enrolled in an ethnically diverse metropolitan public school system in the mid-southern United States revealed that model constructs predicted significant portions of variance in parents' home- and school-based involvement even when controlling for family socioeconomic status. The predictive power of specific model constructs differed for elementary and middle school parents. Results are discussed in terms of research on parental involvement and school practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increasing teacher intervention implementation in general education settings through consultation and performance feedback.

Examined the treatment integrity with which general education teachers implemented a reinforcement based intervention designed to improve the academic performance of elementary school students. The intervention was implemented for 3 3rd graders who were referred for consultation services and were identified as exhibiting performance deficits based on prior assessment. Treatment integrity was assessed via permanent products produced by the intervention. Teachers maintained adequate treatment integrity for 2–4 days, after which, implementation began to deteriorate. Subsequent implementation of daily performance feedback by a consultant markedly improved treatment integrity, and intervention use improved student performance for 2 of the Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The sequential introduction of compliance training components with elementary-aged children in general education classroom settings.

Using a multiple baseline design across Ss, the present study evaluated the sequential introduction of compliance training components on the instruction-following of 4 elementary school students (5 & 6 yr olds) in a general education classroom setting. The components included effective instruction delivery with reinforcement for compliance (EID), time in (TI), and time out (TO). EID alone resulted in increases in compliance of 21%, 30%, 43%, and 44% above baseline levels for the 4 students, respectively. Additional increases of 17%, 13%, 12%, and 18%, respectively, resulted when TO was added to EID. An EID/TI/TO phase resulted in additional increases of 24%, 19%, 7%, and 0%, respectively. Compliance levels were maintained, with minimal decreases, at 1- and 4-mo follow-up for all 4 students. Results are discussed in terms of achieving compliance objectives through the use of exclusively positive procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Project Support: engaging children and families in the educational process

The literature on dropout prevention reveals that a triumvirate of support--from the family, the school, and the community--is necessary to engage children in the educational process. This paper describes Project Support, a federally funded five-year program for at-risk youths that focused on alcohol, drug, and dropout prevention in four low-income, high-minority public school districts in the suburbs of New York City. Of several avenues taken, two were very effective: a school-based mentoring program designed for middle school students and the Outdoor and Environmental Education program that took place during summers and intermittently throughout the school year. The sense of achievement, bonding, and success experienced by participants was acknowledged by administrators, evaluators, parents, and other observers.     

Two-year behavior outcomes of project towards no tobacco use.

Presents a 2-year follow-up data from a school-based tobacco use prevention project designed to test the effectiveness of 3 primary components in social influence programs. The components either teach refusal skills, awareness of social value misperceptions, or physical consequences. Curricula were tested with a randomized experiment involving 48 junior high schools. Data suggested that a physical-consequences curriculum is successful at attenuating increases in adolescent smokeless tobacco use, cigarette experimentation may be attenuated by various approaches, and a comprehensive program with all 3 components was necessary to attenuate increases in weekly use of both forms of tobacco. These results also indicate that school-based tobacco use interventions can be effective at least 2 years postprogram, after students make their transition to high school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student conceptions of learning and their use of self-regulated learning strategies: A cross-cultural comparison.

This study examines differences between Australian and Japanese secondary school students' conceptions of learning and their use of self-regulated learning strategies. Australian students have a narrow, school-based view of learning. The Japanese students view learning from a much broader perspective. For them, learning is not only related to what happens at school, it is also seen as a lifelong, experiential process leading to personal fulfillment. However, in spite of these differences in learning conceptualizations, the strategies used by students in a Western learning context are similar to those used by Japanese students. A conception of learning as "understanding" is associated with a greater total use of strategies for both Australian and Japanese students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Public health nurse staffing requirements for health examination of infants and children in municipalities of Japan

PURPOSE: Little is known about the impact of school-based primary care on adolescents' use of hospital and emergency room care. METHODS: Students (grades 6-12) in nine Baltimore schools with school-based health centers and four schools without health centers were surveyed in May 1991 using an anonymous classroom questionnaire. Self-reported use of primary care services and emergency rooms and hospitalization were examined over the academic year. Logistic regression was used to assess factors influencing use of health care including the presence of a school health center. RESULTS: Students (n = 3,258) in health center schools and comparison schools reported similar rates of chronic health conditions. Students from schools with health centers were more likely to report seeing a social worker or counselor and more likely to report the use of certain health services in the past 4 years. Self-reported emergency room use (38%) and hospitalization (19%) were common. Students in schools with health centers were less likely to report hospitalization (OR = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.66-0.98). Emergency room use was also lower but only for students attending the school with a health center for more than 1 year (OR = 0.78, 95% CI = 0.62-0.99). Significant predictors of hospital care included reporting one or more chronic health condition, having health insurance, being of African-American race, or older age, and lower grade. CONCLUSIONS: Access to school-based, primary health care for adolescents was associated with increased use of primary care, reduced use of emergency rooms, and fewer hospitalizations. These findings have implications for both access to primary care and funding of school-based primary care.     

Infections and vasculitis]

Recent interest in case management by elementary and secondary schools has arisen out of a growing recognition that schools alone are not prepared to address the myriad of health, education, and social service needs of a large number of students, particularly children living in poverty. Boys and girls entering classrooms hungry, sick, homeless, or otherwise distracted are not ready to learn. Improving readiness to learn is a major agenda among educators. Case management is one approach many schools are beginning to use to collaboratively engage parents, community service agencies, the private sector, and communities at large in pursuit of the goal. A promising school-based case management model has been developed and successfully field tested by the University of Washington. The model operationally defines case management, delineates a delivery structure, and includes an evaluation design. Results from a five-year study sponsored by the U. S. Department of Education are encouraging. Although several challenges persist, the future for school case management use is optimistic. Several enhanced variations of the Center for the Study and Teaching of At-Risk Students (C-STARS) case management model are now being demonstrated across the country.     

Victimization, social support, and psychosocial functioning among children of same-sex and opposite-sex couples in the United Kingdom.

To further develop an understanding of psychological and social functioning of children raised by lesbian couples, the authors compared 18 students ages 12-16 raised in families led by female same-sex couples, who were identified from a large school-based survey, with 18 matched students raised by opposite-sex couples and the general student sample. Comparisons were made on factors including victimization, social support, and psychological functioning. Results indicate that those students raised by female same-sex couples did not differ significantly from those raised by opposite-sex couples or the general student sample in terms of reports of victimization, psychological functioning, experience of common adolescent concerns, or prospective use of support outlets provided by family and peers. However, children of same-sex couples reported significantly less likelihood of using school-based support than did children of opposite-sex couples or the general student sample. Findings indicate the need for school administrators, teachers, and psychologists to be knowledgeable of and provide appropriate support and resources for these children. Additional implications for research and application are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the agentry of placebos.

Comments on K. D. O'Leary and T. D. Borkovec's (see record 1979-24057-001) article on methodological considerations in the use of placebos in psychotherapeutic situations. The powerful and active agentry of placebos must be recognized, and the concept of placebos as controls should be examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intraclass correlation estimates in a school-based smoking prevention study. Outcome and mediating variables, by sex and ethnicity

Most school-based smoking prevention studies employ designs in which schools or classrooms are assigned to different treatment conditions while observations are made on individual students. This design requires that the treatment effect be assessed against the between-school variance. However, the between-school variance is usually larger than the variance that would be obtained if students were individually randomized to different conditions. Consequently, the power of the test for a treatment effect is reduced, and it becomes difficult to detect important treatment effects. To assess the potential loss of power or to calculate appropriate sample sizes, investigators need good estimates of the intraclass correlations for the variables of interest. The authors calculated intraclass correlations for some common outcome variables in a school-based smoking prevention study, using a three-level model-i.e., students nested within classrooms and classrooms nested within schools. The authors present the intraclass correlation estimates for the entire data set, as well as separately by sex and ethnicity. They also illustrate the use of these estimates in the planning of future studies.     

Identifying effective treatments from a brief experimental analysis: Using single-case design elements to aid decision making.

Experimental analysis refers to the manipulation of an independent variable while observing its effects on behavior. In the 1980s, researchers began conducting brief experimental analyses to identify the variables maintaining severe problem behavior in individuals with developmental disabilities. By adapting certain design elements, brief experimental analyses have been used in school and clinical settings to compare quickly 2 or more treatment alternatives, allowing one to select the most effective option. This paper discusses the benefits of using brief experimental analyses to aid in treatment selection, identifies the forms of treatment that are most appropriate for this type of analysis, and describes key design elements (i.e., abridged data series, alternating and sequential treatment applications, and mini-withdrawals) for comparing 2 or more treatments efficiently. A study is presented demonstrating the use of these design elements to identify effective school-based behavioral intervention for 2 preschool students. The article discusses the implications of these strategies and presents resources for further study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)