Adolescents' motivation toward the environment: Age-related trends and correlates.

From a self-determination perspective, we attempted to replicate previous findings suggesting that higher autonomous environmental motivation (i.e., acting out of choice and pleasure) is associated with the frequency of environmental behaviours such as recycling, paper reuse, and energy conservation. We also compared students' level of autonomous environmental motivation with their level of autonomous academic motivation. We then examined age effects on autonomous environmental motivation and compared them to age effects on autonomous academic motivation. A total of 200 high school students grouped into 5 age cohorts filled out a questionnaire. Results showed that (1) adolescents' autonomous environmental motivation was associated with more frequent environmental behaviours, (2) autonomous motivation was higher in the environmental than the school domain, and (3) autonomous environmental motivation was higher in older than younger students, whereas autonomous motivation toward school was equivalent across age groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomous motivation for teaching: How self-determined teaching may lead to self-determined learning.

This study examined teachers' experience of autonomous motivation for teaching and its correlates in teachers and students. It was hypothesized that teachers would perceive various motivations posited by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan's (2000) self-determination theory as falling along a continuum of autonomous motivation for teaching. Autonomous motivation for teaching was predicted to be associated positively with teachers' sense of personal accomplishment and negatively with emotional exhaustion. Most important, teachers' self-reported autonomous motivation for teaching was expected to promote students' self-reported autonomous motivation for learning by enhancing teachers' autonomy-supportive behavior, as indicated by students' reports. Results from a sample of 132 Israeli teachers and their 1,255 students were consistent with the hypotheses. Discussion focuses on the importance of the experience of autonomous motivation for teaching for teachers and students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of reward on intrinsic motivation—Negative, neutral, and positive: Comment on Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (1999).

Comments on the meta-analytic review by E. L. Deci et al (see record 1999-01567-001) concerning the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Meta-analyses indicated that rewards increase perceived self-determination and that rewards' effects on intrinsic motivation depend on the performance requirement. Reward for meeting vague performance standards reduced the subsequent choice to carry out the task and did not affect self-reported interest. Reward for meeting absolute performance standards did not affect free choice but increased self-reported interest. Reward for exceeding others increased both free choice and self-reported interest. Applied studies commonly found positive or null relationships between reward and intrinsic motivation. The findings suggest that reward procedures requiring ill-defined or minimal performance convey task triviality, thereby decreasing intrinsic motivation. Reward procedures requiring specific high task performance convey a task's personal or social significance, increasing intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facilitating autonomous motivation for smoking cessation.

Physicians used either an autonomy-supportive or a controlling interpersonal style to counsel smokers based on National Cancer Institute guidelines. Physician autonomy support was rated from audiotapes, and patients' perceived competence and autonomous motivation for quitting were self-reported on questionnaires. Validated point prevalences for 6, 12, and 30 months and for continuous cessation were examined. The intervention did not have a direct effect on quit rates; however, structural equation modeling supported the self-determination process model of smoking cessation. The model indicated that the autonomy-supportive intervention was rated as more autonomy supportive, that rated autonomy support predicted autonomous motivation, and that autonomous motivation predicted cessation at all points in time. Perceived competence contributed independent variance to cessation only at 6 months. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomous, controlled, and amotivated types of academic motivation: A person-oriented analysis.

The authors investigated students' profiles regarding autonomous, controlled, and amotivated regulation and tested whether profile groups differed on some academic adjustment outcomes. Studies 1 and 2 performed on high school students revealed 3 profiles: (a) students with high levels of both controlled motivation and amotivation but low levels of autonomous motivation, (b) students with high levels of both controlled and autonomous motivation but low levels of amotivation, and (c) students with moderate levels of both autonomous and controlled motivations but low levels of amotivation. These first 2 studies revealed that students in the high autonomous/high controlled group reported the highest degree of academic adjustment. Study 3 performed on college students revealed 3 profiles: (a) students with high levels of autonomous motivations but low levels of both controlled motivation and amotivation, (b) students with high levels of both autonomous and controlled motivation but low levels of amotivation, and (c) students with low to moderate levels of the various motivational components. Study 3 indicated that students in the autonomous group were more persistent than students in the other groups. Results are discussed in light of self-determination theory (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 1985). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vitality and interest–enjoyment as a function of class-to-class variation in need-supportive teaching and pupils' autonomous motivation.

In 2 quasi-experimental field studies in a real-life physical education (PE) setting, the authors investigated whether the interest–enjoyment and vitality of Greek pupils (age range, 10–12 years) varied from class to class as a function of the class-to-class variation in the manipulated motivational environment (Studies 1 and 2) and pupils' relative autonomous motivation (Study 2). In Study 1, multilevel analyses showed at the within-student level that students (N = 138, 48.6% boys and 51.4% girls) reported, on average, more interest–enjoyment and vitality after a need-supportive, relative to a typical (i.e., control group), PE class. This main effect was replicated in Study 2 (N = 155, 53.6% boys and 46.4% girls), and Study 2 findings further showed at the between-student level that interest–enjoyment was somewhat higher among pupils scoring higher in relative autonomous motivation. Moreover, Study 2 provided evidence for an interaction effect such that pupils with high, as compared with those with low, relative autonomous motivation benefited significantly more from a need-supportive class. Perceived need support was found to fully explain the effects of manipulated need support on interest-enjoyment and vitality. Results are discussed within the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experiences of Autonomy and Control Among Chinese Learners: Vitalizing or Immobilizing?

Various cross-cultural researchers state that autonomy is not valued in Eastern cultures and, hence, is unlikely to predict optimal study functioning and well-being. In contrast, self-determination theory (SDT; R. M. Ryan & E. L. Deci, 2000) maintains that autonomous or volitional study motivation is universally important and should predict better learning and higher well-being, even among Chinese students. Two studies were conducted to shed light on this controversial issue. Findings from both studies indicated that autonomous study motivation positively predicts adaptive learning attitudes, academic success, and personal well-being, whereas controlled motivation was associated with higher drop-out rates, maladaptive learning attitudes, and ill-being. In addition, Study 2 revealed that parental autonomy support versus psychological control is related to more adaptive learning strategies and higher well-being and that these effects were mediated by students' relative autonomy for studying. The importance of defining autonomy as an intraindividual, phenomenological experience versus an interpersonal, culturally bounded value is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing a self-determination theory intervention for motivating tobacco cessation: Supporting autonomy and competence in a clinical trial.

A longitudinal randomized trial tested the self-determination theory (SDT) intervention and process model of health behavior change for tobacco cessation (N = 1006). Adult smokers were recruited for a study of smokers' health and were assigned to intensive treatment or community care. Participants were relatively poor and undereducated. Intervention patients perceived greater autonomy support and reported greater autonomous and competence motivations than did control patients. They also reported greater medication use and significantly greater abstinence. Structural equation modeling analyses confirmed the SDT process model in which perceived autonomy support led to increases in autonomous and competence motivations, which in turn led to greater cessation. The causal role of autonomy support in the internalization of autonomous motivation, perceived competence, and smoking cessation was supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supporting students' motivation, engagement, and learning during an uninteresting activity.

The present study examined the capacity of 2 different theoretical models of motivation to explain why an externally provided rationale often supports students' motivation, engagement, and learning during relatively uninteresting learning activities. One hundred thirty-six undergraduates (108 women, 28 men) worked on an uninteresting 20-min lesson after either receiving or not receiving a rationale. Participants who received the rationale showed greater identified regulation, interest-enhancing strategies, behavioral engagement, and conceptual learning. Structural equation modeling was used to test 3 alternative explanatory models to understand why the rationale produced these benefits--an identified regulation model based on self-determination theory, an interest regulation model based on interest-enhancing strategies research, and an additive model that integrated both models. The data fit all 3 models; however, only the model that included rationale-enhanced identified regulation uniquely fostered students' engagement and hence their learning. Findings highlight the role that externally provided rationales can play in helping students generate the autonomous motivation they need to engage constructively in and learn from uninteresting, but personally important, lessons. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conscious and nonconscious processes: Implications for self-determination theory.

According to Bargh's Auto-Motive model (Bargh, 1990, 1997a, 1997b; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999), automatic motivational processes are those that are consistently and frequently engaged when environmental cues and contexts similar to that of the past arise. For example, achievement and affiliation have been primed and have been shown to affect behaviour and perceptions in ways similar to conscious activation (e.g., Lakin & Chartrand, 2003). Emerging evidence now suggest that motivational processes related to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be nonconsciously primed and then influence perceptions and behaviours (e.g., Burton, Lydon, D'Alessandro, & Koestner, 2006; Levesque & Pelletier, 2003; Ratelle, Baldwin, & Vallerand, 2005). These nonconscious effects are shown to parallel the conscious effects of motivational processes. These findings challenge researchers interested in SDT and other humanistic theories to think about whether all behaviours and forms of regulation can be nonconsciously determined. In the present paper, the authors argue that automatic nonconscious processes are not always maladaptive and that autonomous (self-determined) as well as controlled forms of motivation can be automatically and nonconsciously activated. However, the authors also argue that conscious processes are essential to our daily experiences and necessary to modulate the manifestation and expression of nonconscious processes that are negative or detrimental to growth or well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic motivation in university: The role of basic psychological needs and identity formation.

This study was an investigation of the relationship between psychological need fulfillment, psychosocial development, and academic motivation in university students. Two models were tested. The 1st model, derived from developmental theories, proposed that basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness would predict identity and intimacy achievement, which would, in turn, predict academic intrinsic motivation. A 2nd model, based on self-determination theory, proposed that identity and intimacy would predict academic motivation and that this relationship would be mediated by basic psychological needs. Results from path analyses supported the model derived from self-determination theory over the model derived from developmental theories. Competence and identity were found to be the 2 constructs most strongly associated with academic motivation. These findings support the view that identity formation plays a critical role in facilitating academic motivation in university. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational “spill-over” during weight control: Increased self-determination and exercise intrinsic motivation predict eating self-regulation.

Objective: Successful weight management relies on at least two health behaviors, eating and exercise. However, little is known about their interaction on a motivational and behavioral level. Based on the Hierarchical Model of Motivation the authors examined whether exercise-specific motivation can transfer to eating regulation during a lifestyle weight control program. The authors further investigated whether general, treatment-related, and exercise motivation underlie the relation between increased exercise and improved eating regulation. Design: Overweight/obese women participated in a 1-year randomized controlled trial (N = 239). The intervention focused on promoting physical activity and internal motivation for exercise and weight loss, following Self-Determination Theory. The control group received general health education. Main Outcome Measures: General and exercise specific self-determination, eating self-regulation variables, and physical activity behavior. Results: General self-determination and more autonomous exercise motivation predicted eating self-regulation over 12 months. Additionally, general and exercise self-determination fully mediated the relation between physical activity and eating self-regulation. Conclusion: Increased general self-determination and exercise motivation seem to facilitate improvements in eating self-regulation during weight control in women. These motivational mechanisms also underlie the relationship between improvements in exercise behavior and eating regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supporting autonomy to motivate patients with diabetes for glucose control

OBJECTIVE: We applied the self-determination theory of human motivation to examine whether patient perceptions of autonomy supportiveness (i.e., patient centeredness) from their diabetes care providers related to improved glucose control over a 12-month period. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study of patients with diabetes from a diabetes treatment center at a university-affiliated community hospital. Participants were 128 patients between 18 and 80 years of age who took medication for diabetes, had no other major medical illnesses, and were responsible for monitoring their glucose and taking their medications. The main outcome measure was a change in HbA1c values over the 12 months of the study RESULTS: Patient perception of autonomy support from a health care provider related to a change in HbA1c values at 12 months (P < 0.05). Further analyses showed that perceived autonomy support from the staff related to significant increases in patient autonomous motivation at 12 months (P < 0.05); that increases in autonomous motivation related to significant increases in perceived competence (P < 0.05); and that increases in a patient's perceived competence related to significant reductions in their HbA1c values over 12 months (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the prediction of the self-determination theory that patients with diabetes whose health care providers are autonomy supportive will become more motivated to regulate their glucose levels, feel more able to regulate their glucose, and show improvements in their HbA1c values.     

Special issue on self-determination theory: A Canadian contribution.

A number of theories have been proposed to account for the role of motivation in human functioning. Amongst these theories, self-determination theory (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1985) has been especially influential. Canadian researchers have played a key role in the development of this important theory. The collection of articles in this special issue concern self-determination theory. Following an introductory article by Deci and Ryan, a total of nine articles appear. These articles review research in a variety of contexts on various important themes, such as work, education, relationships, parenting, health, environmental issues, and psychotherapy. Finally, a concluding article provides some reflection on these articles and proposes directions for future research. As such, this special issue celebrates the role that Canadian researchers have played, and continue to play, in testing and refining this major motivation theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient.

Self-determination theory posits that the degree to which a prosocial act is volitional or autonomous predicts its effect on well-being and that psychological need satisfaction mediates this relation. Four studies tested the impact of autonomous and controlled motivation for helping others on well-being and explored effects on other outcomes of helping for both helpers and recipients. Study 1 used a diary method to assess daily relations between prosocial behaviors and helper well-being and tested mediating effects of basic psychological need satisfaction. Study 2 examined the effect of choice on motivation and consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping using an experimental design. Study 3 examined the consequences of autonomous versus controlled helping for both helpers and recipients in a dyadic task. Finally, Study 4 manipulated motivation to predict helper and recipient outcomes. Findings support the idea that autonomous motivation for helping yields benefits for both helper and recipient through greater need satisfaction. Limitations and implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Restoration process of the need for autonomy: The early alarm stage.

Autonomy is described by self-determination theory as a basic psychological need, essential for individuals' well-being. While basic needs are generally thought to induce a restorative response when thwarted, evidence for such a process is lacking for autonomy. To date, most evidence indicates that autonomy deprivation leads to disaffection of this need in favor of other motives. A temporal model based on the general adaptation syndrome was adapted to reconcile this seeming contradiction. Specifically, it is hypothesized that an early alarm response aimed at restoring the satisfaction of the need for autonomy should precede the later relinquishment and compensation of this need that would result from a prolonged deprivation. Three studies provide support for this model by showing the existence of the immediate autonomy restorative response. Using a controlling situation to manipulate autonomy deprivation, the authors demonstrate in Experiments 1 and 2 that a controlling context leads to enhanced accessibility and an approach bias for autonomy-related stimuli. Experiment 3 indicates that the urge to restore autonomy can also affect personal judgment, leading individuals to make more independent judgments, exercising a nonreactive form of autonomy. Integration of this model within self-determination theory is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation and dietary self-care in adults with diabetes: Are self-efficacy and autonomous self-regulation complementary or competing constructs?

This study examined constructs drawn from social-cognitive theory (A. Bandura, 1986) and self-determination theory (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 1985, 1991) in relation to dietary self-care and life satisfaction among 638 individuals with diabetes. A motivational model of diabetes dietary self-care was proposed, which postulates direct links between self-efficacy/autonomous self-regulation, and adherence/ life satisfaction. Structural equation modeling showed that both self-efficacy and autonomous self-regulation were associated with adherence (βs?=?.54 and .21, respectively) and with life satisfaction (βs?=?.15 and .34, respectively). Constraint analyses confirmed that self-efficacy was significantly more associated with adherence, whereas autonomous self-regulation was significantly more associated with life satisfaction. According to the model, interventions for dietary self-care and life satisfaction should focus on increasing self-efficacy and autonomous self-regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of reward contingency and performance feedback on intrinsic motivation.

93 high school students were offered performance or task-contingent rewards or no reward for doing hidden-figures puzzles. Ss offered performance-contingent rewards all received positive feedback concerning performance, and half the Ss in task-contingent and no-reward conditions received the same positive feedback. Performance-contingent rewards were found to undermine intrinsic motivation more than task-contingent ones, which produced decrements relative to control conditions of no reward, supporting E. Deci's (1972, 1975) control model. Positive feedback enhanced intrinsic motivation; this effect was independent of reward effects. A recall measure indicated that Ss receiving performance-contingent rewards remembered fewer performance-irrelevant details about the task, suggesting that rewards may affect the process of task involvement as well as its motivational outcomes. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Reality" is complicated.

Comments on the article by R. Eisenberger and J. Cameron (see record 1996-06440-007) regarding the effects of reward on human behavior. The authors agree with Eisenberger and Cameron that the effects of rewards on motivation can be positive under some circumstances but argue that their attempts to counter simplistic recommendations about the uses of rewards led them to simplify the theorizing and empirical research that has been conducted in the areas of intrinsic motivation over the past 20 yrs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)