Emotional arousal and overeating in restrained eaters.

Tested the effects of 3 mood inductions (neutral, positive, and negative) on food intake in 91 women of varying degrees of dietary restraint. Mood induction was accomplished by exposure to 1 of 3 film segments: a travelogue (neutral affect), a comedy film (positive affect), and a horror film (negative affect). In Ss exposed to the neutral film, food intake decreased with increasing levels of dietary restraint. Among Ss who viewed either the comedy film or the horror film, however, food intake increased with increasing restraint. Although the horror film appeared to be more disinhibiting than the comedy film, this effect may have resulted from a difference in the intensity of the emotions induced rather than from their valence. These results suggest that emotional arousal, regardless of valence, may trigger overeating among restrained eaters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frontal brain asymmetry in restrained eaters.

It is well known that the eating patterns that restrain chronic dieters (restrained eaters) can be disinhibited by anxiety, which in turn has been associated with relative right frontal brain activity in independent electroencephalographic (EEG) studies. Combining these two lines of evidence, the authors tested the hypothesis that chronic restrained eating is associated with relative right frontal asymmetry. Resting anterior brain asymmetry and self-reported measures of anxiety and depression were collected in 23 restrained and 32 unrestrained eaters. As hypothesized, groups differed in tonic frontal activity, with restrained eaters showing more relative right frontal activity. Furthermore, relative right frontal activity was associated with greater self-reported restraint. Right-sided prefrontal asymmetry may thus represent a diathesis associated with increased vulnerability toward restrained eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disinhibited eating by resourceful restrained eaters.

Restrained eaters who reported consistent use of a variety of self-control skills were expected to avoid disinhibited eating in a high-risk situation better than were restrained eaters, who reportedly used fewer self-control skills. 80 women were selected as Ss on the basis of their scores on the Revised Restraint Scale (C. P. Herman, 1978) and the Self-Control Schedule (M. Rosenbaum (see record 1980-04499-001). A 2?×?2 design was used: Restraint (high, low)?×?Self-Control (high, low). Ss participated in the usual "preload?+? taste-test" restraint paradigm. Restrained eaters who reported high self-control skills disinhibited their eating significantly more (not less, as expected) than all other groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Brain activation in restrained and unrestrained eaters: An fMRI study.

Restraint theory has been used to model the process that produces binge eating. However, there is no satisfactory explanation for the tendency of restrained eaters (REs) to engage in counterregulatory eating, an ostensible analogue of binge eating. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), the authors investigated brain activation of normal weight REs (N = 9) and unrestrained eaters (UREs; N = 10) when fasted and fed and viewing pictures of highly and moderately palatable foods and neutral objects. When fasted and viewing highly palatable foods, UREs showed widespread bilateral activation in areas associated with hunger and motivation, whereas REs showed activation only in the cerebellum, an area previously implicated in low-level processing of appetitive stimuli. When fed and viewing high palatability foods, UREs showed activation in areas related to satiation and memory, whereas REs showed activation in areas implicated in desire, expectation of reward, and goal-defined behavior. These findings parallel those from behavioral research. The authors propose that the counterintuitive findings from preload studies and the present study are due to the fact that REs are less hungry than UREs when fasted and find palatable food more appealing than UREs when fed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some antecedents of regulatory eating by restrained and unrestrained eaters.

120 female undergraduates who were restrained or unrestrained eaters (as determined by the Restraint Scale and the Binge Scale) consumed a milk shake preload and then taste-tested ice cream. All Ss were provided with the same amount of ice cream, but it was presented either in small or large bowls accompanied or not accompanied by accurate information about its caloric content. The double-experimental condition (small-bowl/labeled) produced regulatory eating in restrained and unrestrained Ss. Conversely, both groups counterregulated in the control condition (large-bowl/unlabeled). When only 1 of the 2 experimental procedures was operational, restrained eaters used bigger spoonfuls to consume more than unrestrained eaters; restrained eaters also disproportionately lowered their caloric estimates of their consumption only in these 2 cells. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal and external components of emotionality in restrained and unrestrained eaters.

Compared the affective responsiveness of dieters and nondieters. 47 male college students rated the emotional impact of projected slides in a situation similar to that used by P. Pliner et al (see record 1974-27296-001) with obese and normal Ss. The present findings show that dieters, like the obese, were more extreme emotional responders. When Ss were given an internal source of arousal (i.e., caffeine), nondieters became more emotional and dieters became less emotional. These results are discussed in terms of S. Schachter's (1971) "externality" model of obesity and S. Schachter and J. E. Singer's "external–internal" theory of emotion. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cue reactivity to food- and body-related stimuli in restrained and unrestrained eaters

In the present study, psychophysiological cue reactivity was monitored in 11 restrained (nonclinical but disinhibitive) and 13 unrestrained (control) subjects. The cues consisted of slides depicting either personally "favourite" binge food items or the subject's own body. The parameters monitored included skin conductance, heart rate, startle eyeblink EMG, and facial (corrugator and zygomatic) EMG. Although for several parameters the expected main effect of slide type was found, no between-group differences in cue reactivity could be demonstrated. Several explanations of the present finding, as well as possible future directions for cue reactivity research, are discussed, with emphasis placed upon the role of classical conditioning in eating disorders.     

Effects of plans for future meals on counterregulatory eating by restrained and unrestrained eaters.

Hypothesized that the counterregulatory eating of restrained eaters would be exacerbated by a high-calorie meal plan but prevented by a low-calorie meal plan and that unrestrained eaters would follow the reverse pattern. In Exp I, 33 restrained- and 33 unrestrained-eating female undergraduates consumed a milkshake preload and then taste-tested nuts. Prior to the taste test, Ss were led to believe that they would be returning to the laboratory at dinner-time to consume a rich, high-calorie dinner, a low-calorie dinner, or to participate in a noneating-related experiment (control condition). Results show that high-calorie manipulation increased consumption by both restrained and unrestrained eaters. In Exp II, a very low-calorie condition was added and ice cream was substituted for nuts as the taste-test food; 48 restrained and 48 unrestrained female undergraduates participated. Results confirm the findings of Exp I. It is concluded that (1) the restraint dimension was more continuous than dichotomous, with unrestrained Ss evidencing a higher threshold for counterregulation; and (2) tasting sweet palatable foods may reduce the ability of certain cognitive factors to affect counterregulatory eating by restrained eaters. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exposure to slim images in mass media: Television commercials as reminders of restriction in restrained eaters.

Objective: The aim of the present study was to explore the effects of exposure to slim images and diet-related products in commercials on actual food intake in relation to dietary restraint. Design: An experimental design was used, in which food intake was measured in 124 female students who watched either a sad or a neutral movie on television, which was interrupted by either commercials featuring slim models and diet products, or neutral commercials. Subsequently, participants filled out questionnaires on dietary restraint and any tendency toward overeating. Main outcome variable: Intake of snack food while watching television. Results: It was found that highly restrained students exposed to commercials with slim models and diet-related products ate less food, whereas less restrained eaters ate slightly more after seeing these commercials. Conclusion: The findings suggest that restrained eaters confronted with diet products and slim images when watching television will be reminded of their restricted eating behavior and eat less. The present study provides support for the reinhibition theory of slim media images. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cue-elicited negative affect in impulsive smokers.

Impulsivity is associated with cigarette smoking, but the nature of this relationship and the mechanisms that maintain it are relatively unknown. The relationship has often been thought to reflect appetitive processes, but research suggests that an affective pathway exists as well. The present study tested the effect of impulsivity on affective responses to an environmental smoking cue. Adult smokers (N=62) were exposed to a neutral cue and a smoking cue in separate experimental sessions in a repeated-measures design. Mixed-effects regression analyses showed that larger postexposure increases in negative affect were associated with high scores on 2 facets of impulsivity: urgency, t(179)=6.16, p     

Individual differences in negative affect repair.

The extant literature implicates affect repair ability as one source of individual differences in negative affect. Emerging from this literature are three regulatory traits that should predict repair ability (negative mood regulation expectancies, monitoring, labeling), yet no experimental examination of this possibility exists. Two studies explored this issue. Participants (Ns = 305, 146) watched negative affect-inducing videos and completed a repair or control writing task, before and after which they reported their affect. Results revealed wide individual differences in repair ability. Specifically, participants with high expectancies of repair success and those who attend to and understand their affect experienced the largest decreases in negative affect and largest increases in positive affect following the repair tasks. These findings advance understanding of individual differences in affect regulation and have implications for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The specific psychopathology of bulimia nervosa: A comparison with restrained and unrestrained (normal) eaters.

The hypothesis that patients with bulimia nervosa and restrained eaters exist on a simple continuum of psychopathology was tested in 60 Ss (20 bulimics, 20 restrained eaters, 20 unrestrained eaters). Regarding measures related to dieting behavior and physical appearance, the restrained eaters differed significantly from unrestrained eaters and were similar to bulimic patients except for level of psychopathology. The restrained eaters could not be distinguished from the unrestrained eaters with regard to measures representing interoceptive perception, self-esteem, and fears about interpersonal relationships. On these traits, bulimic patients could be clearly distinguished from the normal Ss. The results support a 2-component model of the psychopathology of bulimia nervosa. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive changes to preloading in restrained and unrestrained eaters as measured by the Stroop task

Restraint theory has identified overeating in response to a high calorie preload as characteristic of restrained eaters. The present study evaluated cognitive and motivational changes to preloading using both self-report rating scales and Stroop tasks. The results suggest that the restrained eaters responded to a high calorie preload with increased feelings of rebelliousness, defiance, and a desire to challenge the limitations set by the diet, described as an active state of mind, as measured by both the Stroop task and the rating scales. The restrained eaters also showed retardation in the color naming of the body size words and food words after the high calorie preload, suggesting that the consumption of a forbidden food may increase the dieter's concern about food and her shape and weight. The results are discussed in terms of the effects of preloading and possible mediating variables involved in the transition from successful restraint to overeating.     

Effects of false weight feedback on mood, self-evaluation, and food intake in restrained and unrestrained eaters.

Restrained and unrestrained eaters were weighed 5 lb (2.27 kg) heavier or 5 lb lighter than their actual weight or were not weighed at all. Unrestrained eaters and restrained eaters who were told they weighed 5 lb less were not affected by the false weight feedback. However, restrained eaters who were informed that they weighed S lb more reported lower self-esteem, less positive moods, and more negative moods than did restrained eaters in the other 2 conditions. Furthermore, restrained eaters who were led to believe that they weighed heavier ate significantly more food during a subsequent "taste test" than did each of the other groups. Restrained eaters who believed that they were heavier experienced lowered self-worth and a worsening of mood that led them to relinquish their dietary restraint and overindulge in available food. lmplications for patients with eating disorders are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive affect, negative affect, and social interaction.

Two studies explored the relations of positive and negative affect (PA and NA) to social interaction. In Study 1, unacquainted dyads were surreptitiously videotaped as they participated in a 6-min interaction. Participants then evaluated the quality of the interaction. Independent observers also rated the videotaped interactions. Trait PA was positively related to both participant and observer evaluations of interaction quality. In Study 2, undergraduates kept diaries of their social interactions for 1 week, PA was again related to interaction quality. Both PA and NA were positively related to the number of interactions in which participants engaged, and the amount of time spent engaged in social contact, although different types of social encounters produced these relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The independence of positive and negative affect.

Five studies, with 776 undergraduates and 34 33–85 yr old community residents, investigated the relation beween positive and negative affect. Instruments included the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Eysenck Personality Inventory, and 16PF. In Studies 1 and 2, positive feelings were remembered as being nearly independent of negative feelings in the past year, but the 2 types of affect were moderately negatively correlated for the past month. In Studies 3 and 5, Ss completed daily mood reports for 70 and 30 days, respectively. In Study 4, Ss completed 3-wk, daily, and moment mood reports and also filled out reports when they experienced strong emotions. The principal finding was that the relation between positive and negative affect differed greatly depending on the time frame. The strongest negative correlation between the 2 affects occurred during emotional times. The correlation decreased in a linear fashion as the time span covered increased logarithmically. It appears that positive and negative affect are independent in terms of how much people feel in their lives over longer time periods. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nicotine, negative affect, and depression.

Depression, whether conceptualized as a trait, symptom, or as a diagnosable disorder, is overrepresented among smokers. Depressed smokers appear to experience more withdrawal symptoms on quitting, are less likely to be successful at quitting, and are more likely to relapse. This article documents these relationships and explores several potential links between smoking and depression. The potential efficacy of antidepressant therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and nicotine replacement therapy for smokers with depressive disorders or traits is discussed. Clinical implications and the role of patient treatment matching are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-focused attention and negative affect: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis synthesized 226 effect sizes reflecting the relation between self-focused attention and negative affect (depression, anxiety, negative mood). The results demonstrate the multifaceted nature of self-focused attention and elucidate major controversies in the field. Overall, self-focus was associated with negative affect. Several moderators qualified this relationship. Self-focus and negative affect were more strongly related in clinical and female-dominated samples. Rumination yielded stronger effect sizes than nonruminative self-focus. Self-focus on positive self-aspects and following a positive event were related to lower negative affect. Most important, an interaction between foci of self-attention and form of negative affect was found: Private self-focus was more strongly associated with depression and generalized anxiety, whereas public self-focus was more strongly associated with social anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalized self-efficacy, self-esteem, and negative affect.

In order to help resolve the ongoing debate about the relationship between and the functions of self-esteem and generalized self-efficacy (GSE), the authors tested the hypotheses that GSE predicts future self-esteem and that self-esteem predicts unique incremental variance in future negative affect. Measures of these three constructs were administered to two samples of undergraduates (N = 160 and N = 75) twice over five-six weeks. Time 1 GSE accounted for significant variance in Time 2 self-esteem in both studies, 1.6% of the variance in Study 1 and 4.6% of the variance in Study 2, after controlling for Time 1 self-esteem. Time 1 self-esteem did not predict Time 2 GSE in either study. Self-esteem accounted for significant variance in negative affect in Study 1. Results suggest that GSE and self-esteem are distinct, that GSE may play a role in the development of self-esteem, and that self-esteem may help shape negative affect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the independence of positive and negative affect.

Three separate but mutually compatible explanations are offered for N. M. Bradburn's (1969) finding that positive and negative affects are statistically independent: (1) In terms of a higher-order generalization, numbers of experienced desirable and undesirable episodes are generally uncorrelated. (2) The independence is a function of a response mode and scoring procedure that differ from those used elsewhere. (3) Short-term affective states are linked with more stable personality dispositions. 500 undergraduates served as Ss. Findings support each of these explanations: (a) Numbers of desirable and undesirable recent life events were statistically independent and correlated with positive and negative affect in the predicted manner. (b) Amending the response format from counting the number of positive and negative experiences to requiring reports of the proportion of time each was experienced yielded an intercorrelation of –.54 compared to –.01 in the original format. (c) Positive and negative affects were significantly associated with extraversion and neuroticism, respectively, but not with the other dispositional measure. Each explanation had value within 3 different conceptual and methodological frameworks. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)