Pyramids, circles, and teams: Confronting leadership issues.

This article traces the ongoing controversy about the relative value of hierarchies and teams in corporate organizations through a presentation case histories of two current executive leaders, both recently attaining their positions and faced with problematic situations involving difficult senior players who report to them. It uses the case histories to illustrate differences in personality and leadership styles, describing these in terms of pyramids and circles, and uses this context to argue for a continuum of successful leadership styles and behaviors that work only when suited to the personality and style of the leaders themselves. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between leadership style and empowerment on job satisfaction of nurses

OBJECTIVE: The authors explore the relation between leadership style and empowerment and its effect on job satisfaction among the nursing staff of a regional medical center. BACKGROUND: Several empirical studies on transformational leadership-found that transformational leadership behaviors were positively related to work team success and leadership effectiveness. Transformational leadership processes have also been suggested to enhance followers' work-oriented values and shape the self-efficacies of followers. Employee empowerment may be influenced by the perception that the organization cares about its employees' well-being and that their work is valued. Empowering nurses may increase job satisfaction and improve patient care. Leadership style and empowerment influence job satisfaction among workers. METHODS: All nursing department staff were invited to complete a self-report questionnaire with no identifying information. Leadership style was measured using Bass's Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, empowerment was measured with items from Spreitzer's Psychological Empowerment instrument, and job satisfaction was measured by Warr, Cook, and Wall's job satisfaction questionnaire. RESULTS: Both transformational and transactional leadership were positively related to job satisfaction, as was empowerment. Differences in the contributions of empowerment and leadership style in predicting job satisfaction for licensed and unlicensed workers was evident. CONCLUSION: Designing interventions that allow for the relative influence of leadership style as well as empowerment on varying classifications of nursing personnel may be a more effective strategy and have a greater effect on staff attitudes and behaviors.     

The effects of leadership style and leadership power upon the inducement of an attitude change.

"The purpose of this study was to determine whether a participatory style of leadership was more effective than a lecture style of leadership in inducing an attitude change when the leader explicitly offered to reward compliance or threatened to punish noncompliance. 35 groups of 4 to 8 pupils in the fifth and sixth grades of a public school met with a leader who tried to change their preferences for comic books. 6 experimental conditions were established… ." Among the results were the findings that both reward and punishment produced more public compliance than the control conditions and that participatory leadership induced more change than lecture leadership when the leader was associated with neutral power or power to reward compliance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex effects in evaluating leaders.

Investigated the extent to which sex role stereotypes influence the evaluation of leadership behavior. 225 male and 57 female business students were administered 1 of 2 versions of a questionnaire containing 4 stories, each depicting a leadership style based on 1 of the following leadership dimensions: initiating structure, consideration, production emphasis, and tolerance for freedom. Managers' names were altered in the 2 versions to indicate males or females. Answers to 8 evaluative questions for each of the leadership styles confirm the hypothesis that sex has an effect on evaluations of managerial behavior, although the effect varied for different leadership styles. Female managers received more positive scores than male managers on the consideration style. Initiating structure behavior was valued more highly when engaged in by male managers. Manager sex had no significant influence on evaluations of the production emphasis and tolerance for freedom styles. Sex of S effects also were noted on all but the consideration style. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Taking the reins: The effects of new leader status and leadership style on team performance.

New leaders face a challenging task when they take charge of their teams. They have to determine how best to guide the work process, and they must understand how their behaviors will affect the members of their team. This research examines how a newly assigned team leader's status moderates subordinates' reactions to different leadership styles to affect assessments of the leader's self-confidence and effectiveness, and how this impacts team performance. Across 2 experimental studies, results demonstrate that low-status leaders are rated as more effective when they use a directive style, whereas high-status leaders are viewed as more effective when they use a participative style, and this relationship is mediated by perceptions of self-confidence. In addition, teams whose leaders are viewed more favorably perform better on a complex group task. These findings imply that low-status individuals are able to enhance their level of personal power by drawing on whatever positional power they hold, whereas high-status individuals are better off relying solely on their personal power to influence others. This research also provides a clear demonstration that assessments of new leaders' behaviors are subject to an appraisal that is clouded by observers' status perceptions and attributions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.

Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence is found for both the presence and absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-stereotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally oriented style and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizational studies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic in the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were defined as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically, women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences in social behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams.

This research investigated leadership and effectiveness of teams operating in a high-velocity environment, specifically trauma resuscitation teams. On the basis of the literature and their own ethnographic work, the authors proposed and tested a contingency model in which the influence of leadership on team effectiveness during trauma resuscitation differs according to the situation. Results indicated that empowering leadership was more effective when trauma severity was low and when team experience was high. Directive leadership was more effective when trauma severity was high or when the team was inexperienced. Findings also suggested that an empowering leader provided more learning opportunities than did a directive leader. The major contribution of this article is the linkage of leadership to team effectiveness, as moderated by relatively specific situational contingencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Promoting nursing practice through nursing research

ICN is convinced of the importance of nursing research as a means of improving professional education and practice and generating health policies and systems that assure cost-effective use of resources. To this end, ICN is investing heavily in programmes and projects that strengthen the capabilities of ICN and its members to exercise research leadership. Below, three dimensions of research leadership that are important in today's health environment: 1) Fostering research-based practice; 2) Documenting the work and worth of nursing: and 3) Enhancing public understanding of nursing work.     

Relationship between time-span of discretion, leadership behavior, and Fiedler's LPC scores.

Investigated the effects of a difference in time-span of discretion (an environmental factor) on performance and leadership style, using 18 foremen and 30 2-member teams. Results indicate that a difference in time-span of discretion influences the atmosphere in the experimental teams and the leadership style measurements (Least Preferred Co-workers, LPC, scores). It also questions the reliability of LPC scores as a result of environmental influences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of leadership style on content and work styles of short-term therapy groups.

Exposed 92 patients in a short-term psychiatric facility to 20 group sessions under 2 leadership conditions: cognitive and experiential. Cognitive leaders encouraged discussion of topics, goals, and purposes of hospitalization, while experiential leaders focused on expression of feelings and thoughts and on immediate (in-group) interpersonal relationships. 2 judges using the Hill Interaction Matrix rating device independently scored each session according to the content and work styles of the therapy groups. Interrater reliabilities ranged from .78-.95 for the 4 quadrants of the instrument. Groups in the experiential condition were significantly more member and work centered than groups in the cognitive condition. Results support the implication that an experiential leadership style possesses greater potential for member-related discussion (content) and member-centered interaction (work). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal behavior, gender, and influence.

Participants viewed a videotape of either a male or female confederate delivering a persuasive message using a high task, social, submissive, or dominant nonverbal style. Participants were influenced more after viewing the social and task styles than the dominant or submissive styles. Participants liked task and social confederates more than dominant confederates and considered submissive confederates to be less competent than the other 3 styles. Although both likableness and competence were predictive of influence, likableness was a more important determinant of influence for female than male speakers when the audience was male. Consequently, with a male audience, women exhibiting a task style were less influential and likable than men exhibiting that style. Men were not more influential than women when displaying dominance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuroticism and locus of control as moderators of the relationships of charismatic and autocratic leadership with burnout.

This study examined the moderating role of personality traits in the relationship between leader behavior and burnout. In two samples, employees (N = 91; N = 190) filled out the Maslach Burnout Inventory—General Survey and rated their leader’s autocratic and charismatic leader behavior and their own neuroticism and internal work locus of control. As expected, neuroticism and internal work locus of control moderated the relationship between leader behavior and burnout. Charisma was associated with lower burnout, particularly for individuals low on internal locus. The relationship between autocratic leadership and burnout was positive for neurotic individuals, whereas for emotionally stable individuals this relationship weakened. These results were consistent across two independent samples: one with individual employee ratings of manager’s leadership styles and the other with aggregate ratings of manager’s leadership styles among employees in diverse organizations. Thus, although charismatic and autocratic leader behavior may respectively act to hinder or enhance overload and stress, the relationship between these leadership styles and burnout differs for followers with different traits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Functional and morphologic changes in the posterior ocular field in relation to primary open-angle glaucoma. II. Relation of perimetry findings and the c/d ratio

To successfully function in the next century, a nurse will need to develop leadership characteristics. The needed characteristics include (1) changing view of clients, (2) managing the environment, (3) being a visionary, (4) utilizing sophisticated communication skills, and (5) using "new" resources. The author describes these characteristics and identifies strategies that can be used by a nurse to incorporate the characteristics into nursing practice.     

A person–environment analysis of job stress: A contingency model explanation.

Applied the contingency model of leadership in a field study of job stress to investigate whether the match between leadership orientation and situational control is closely related to stress. 51 university administrators completed a series of questionnaires that assessed their leadership style, degree of situational control within their work setting, perceived job stress, physical health, and psychological well-being. MANOVAs showed that Ss whose leadership style and level of situational control were "in match" reported significantly less job stress, fewer health problems, and fewer days missed from work than administrators who were "out of match." Results support the person–environment fit model of job stress and further demonstrate the utility of the contingency model of leadership. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transformational leadership and the hospice R.N. case manager: a new critical pathway

This article asserts that in light of changing conditions in the healthcare environment, transformational leadership is the most appropriate leadership style for the hospice registered nurse case manager. The author defines transformational leadership and, tracing from early leadership theories, demonstrates how the transformational-transactional leadership paradigm emerged from preceding leadership theories. The components of transformational leadership--transformational behavior and transformational characteristics--are linked to hospice theory and hospice-specific nursing practices. The expanding role of the hospice R.N. case manager is addressed in light of transformational leadership and culture building. Specific actions are proposed in the arenas of research, education, and community, corporate, and legislative involvement.     

Sex differences in the appropriateness of supervisory styles: A nonmanagement view.

Three different supervisory styles (directive, rational, or friendly) portrayed by male vs female supervisors were rated by 30 male, average age 27.9 yrs, and 30 female, average age 27.2 yrs, nonmanagement personnel. Ss evaluated the effectiveness of, and their satisfaction with, the various styles portrayed as though they were the subordinates. The directive style was rated least favorably when it is displayed by female supervisors. Results indicate that nonmanagement employees' sex role stereotypes merit further investigation. Also, a contingency view of leadership should take into account that the sex of subordinate and of supervisor jointly suggest the appropriate supervisory style. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leaders as attachment figures: Leaders' attachment orientations predict leadership-related mental representations and followers' performance and mental health.

In 3 studies, the authors examined the contribution of leaders' attachment styles to their leadership motives and beliefs and to followers' outcomes. In Study 1, participants completed measures of attachment orientation, leadership motives, self-representations, and leadership style. Studies 2 and 3 were conducted within Israeli military units either during a leadership workshop or during intensive combat training. Israeli military officers and their soldiers (followers) reported on their attachment styles, and the soldiers reported on the officers' leadership qualities and on the soldiers' own performance and mental health. Leaders' attachment anxiety was associated with more self-serving leadership motives and with poorer leadership qualities in task-oriented situations. Leaders' attachment anxiety also predicted followers' poorer instrumental functioning. Leaders' attachment-related avoidance was negatively associated with prosocial motives to lead, with the failure to act as a security provider, and with followers' poorer socioemotional functioning and poorer long-range mental health. Results are discussed with respect to the value of attachment theory for the study of leadership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instruction in career decision making and decision-making styles.

Investigated the differential effectiveness of 2 distinct career decision-making interventions and decision-making styles on certainty of vocational choice and changes in vocational maturity. 120 undergraduates were randomly assigned to (a) intuitive intervention, (b) rational intervention, (c) attention-placebo, or (d) no-treatment control groups. Ss were classified as having either a rational, intuitive, or dependent decision-making style, and styles distributed themselves evenly across the 4 groups. They were administered a battery of tests including the Career Maturity Inventory, Vocational Survey Questionnaire, and Assessment of Career Decision Making. Results indicate that decision-making style contributed to vocational maturity and certainty of vocational choice, and both interventions resulted in increases on both dependent measures. Rational decision makers did best with the rational intervention, whereas intuitive decision makers did best with the intuitive interventions. Thus, both styles can be considered as effective. Dependent decision makers had an ineffective style, demonstrating decreases on both dependent measures in all groups. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)