On the relationship between differential outcomes and differential sample responding in matching-to-sample.

Four experiments involving 24 experimental pigeons and 24 experimentally naive pigeons examined control over choice by differential sample responding in matching-to-sample with differential outcomes. In Exp 1, Ss initially learned to match with food vs no-food outcomes. Their performances later transferred to other samples to which responding vs not responding had been explicitly reinforced with a single outcome (food). In Exp 2, Ss initially learned to produce the comparisons by pecking 1 sample but not the other. Transfer was then observed to new samples associated with food vs no food (and thus often vs seldomly pecked). Exps 3 and 4 showed that transfer of matching required differential behavior to each sample set and did not depend on explicit conditioning of that behavior prior to acquisition. Results show that differential sample behavior provides a redundant cue for choice in differential outcome matching-to-sample. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of differential sample responding in the differential outcomes effect involving delayed matching by pigeons.

The role of differential sample responding in the differential outcomes effect was examined. In Exp 1, pigeons were trained on a one-to-many matching task with differential sample responding required. Differential outcomes were associated with samples and comparisons, with comparisons only, or with neither samples nor comparisons. Slopes of delay functions for trials with pecked versus nonpecked samples suggested use of a single-code-default strategy in the nondifferential-outcomes group but not in the differential-outcomes groups. In Exp 2, differential sample responding and differential outcomes were manipulated independently. Again, there were significant differences in the relative slopes of the delay functions. Results suggest that differential outcomes exert their effect independently of differential sample responding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retrospective coding in pigeons' delayed matching-to-sample.

In Exp I, 2 groups of 6 White Carneaux pigeons initially learned 0-delay matching-to-sample with identical comparison stimuli (vertical and horizontal lines) but with different sample stimuli (red and green hues or vertical and horizontal lines). Longer delays were then introduced between sample offset and comparison onset to assess whether Ss were prospectively coding the same events (the correct line comparisons) or retrospectively coding different events (their respective sample stimuli). The hue-sample group matched more accurately and showed a slower rate of forgetting than the line-sample group. In Exp II, 20 mixed-breed pigeons were trained (1) with either hues or lines as both sample and comparison stimuli or (2) with hue samples and line comparisons or vice versa. Subsequent delay tests revealed that the hue-sample groups remembered more accurately and generally showed slower rates of forgetting than the line-sample groups. Comparison dimension had little or no effect on performance. Data suggest that pigeons retrospectively code the samples in delayed matching-to-sample. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of glutamic acid in cognitive behaviors.

Considerable evidence exists suggesting that glutamic acid plays a significant role in cognitive behavior. Its effects upon intelligence are evident both in normal and in retarded persons. Variations in results are believed to be related to: (1) types of Ss employed, (2) the condition under which the drug is administered, (3) the method of assessing change in cognitive behavior, (4) method of drug administration, and (5) type of glutamic acid employed. Relevant physiological literature is reviewed. (3 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential effects in pigeon delayed matching-to-sample performance.

Five pigeons were tested in a 3-alternative delayed matching-to-sample task in which 2nd choices were permitted following 1st-choice errors. Sequences of responses both within and between trials were examined in 3 experiments. In Exp I, the sample information contained in 1st-choice errors was not sufficient to account for the observed pattern of 2nd choices. This implies that 2nd choices following 1st-choice errors are based on a 2nd examination of the contents of working memory. Proactive interference was found in Exp II in the form of a dependency, beyond that expected on the basis of trial-independent response bias, of 1st-choices from 1 trial on the 1st-choice emitted on the previous trial. Samples from the previous trial did not exert a significant influence on later trials. The magnitude of the intertrial association (Exp III) did not depend on the duration of the intertrial interval. In contrast, longer intertrial intervals and longer sample durations facilitated choice accuracy by strengthening the association between current samples and choices. Results are incompatible with a trace-decay and completion model; they suggest that multiple influences act simultaneously and independently to control delayed matching-to-sample responding. These influences include memory for the choice occurring on the previous trial, memory for the sample, and general effects of trial spacing. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social role and patterns of symptomatic behaviors.

In an attempt to develop a more conceptually oriented system of psychiatric classification, the statistical relationships occurring among various symptomatic reactions were studied in 604 patients. The deviant reactions were organized into symptom clusters, and a test of their stability was made in another group of Ss. The 3 symptom clusters which emerged were "avoidance of others… self-indulgence and turning against others… [and] self-deprivation and turning against the self." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early predictors of sexually intimate behaviors in an urban sample of young girls.

In recent years, concern has been raised about girls’ involvement in sexual activity at progressively younger ages. Little is known about the prevalence of emerging intimate behaviors, the psychosocial factors associated with these behaviors, or the moderating effects of ethnicity on these associations in early adolescence. In the current prospective study, we examined the prevalence and predictors of sexually intimate behaviors at age 12 years in an urban community sample of 1,116 ethnically diverse girls. Cluster analysis revealed 3 groups at age 12: no sexual behavior, mild behavior (e.g., holding hands), and moderate behavior (e.g., laying together). Minority status girls reported higher rates of both mild and moderate sexually intimate behaviors compared with European American girls. After controlling for the significant effects of age 11 intimate behaviors, lifetime alcohol use, poor parent–child communication, deviant peer behavior, onset of menarche, and interactions between ethnicity and impulsivity, social self-worth and depression uniquely increased the odds of engaging in moderately intimate behaviors at age 12 years. Parenting characteristics increased the likelihood of moderate, relative to mild, behaviors. For European American girls only, high levels of impulsivity and low social self-worth were associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in moderate intimate behaviors, whereas high levels of depressive symptoms reduced the odds. The results suggest that early prevention efforts need to incorporate awareness of different social norms relating to sexual behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of the shared family context in differential parenting.

This article examines the role of the shared family context in understanding differential parental treatment of children. Child-specific and family-context predictors of differential parental positivity and negativity were examined using multilevel modeling in a population of 8,476 children nested in 3,762 families. Child age was the strongest child-specific predictor of positivity and differential positivity. Lower socioeconomic status (SES), marital dissatisfaction, and larger family size were associated with higher levels of differential positivity. There was evidence of potentiation when risks were combined. Children's temperament was associated with parental negativity and differential negativity. The strength of this association was moderated by SES. Mixed-gender sibships in families with marital dissatisfaction and children in single-parent families received the highest levels of differential negativity. The findings are discussed in the context of shared and nonshared environmental influences on development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sources of visual interference in delayed matching-to-sample with pigeons.

In 2 experiments, independent groups of pigeons were trained on an identity matching task involving line orientations as sample and comparison stimuli. An overhead houselight was illuminated continuously throughout each training session or was never illuminated during training sessions. During subsequent testing, the lighting conditions during the delay were the same as in training on some trials, but on other trials they were opposite those of training during either the entire delay (Exp 1) or during a portion of the delay (Exp 2). In Ss trained with the houselight off, turning the houselight on during the delay produced a large and enduring disruption in matching accuracy. In Ss trained with the houselight on, turning the houselight off during the delay produced only a moderate and temporary disruption in matching accuracy. In pigeons, as in monkeys, sustained retroactive interference effects obtain only when the level of illumination is increased during the delay interval. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of work habits in the motivation of food safety behaviors.

The authors considered work habits within an integrated framework of motivated behavior. A distinction made between automatic and controlled action led to 2 measures of work habits: a habit strength measure reflecting the 4 characteristics of automaticity and a measure of work routines under conscious control. Workers at a turkey processing plant (N = 162) responded to an extensive survey of these work habits measures with regard to food safety. Results indicated that attitudes and subjective norms predicted food safety intentions. These intentions, along with perceived behavior control and work habits, predicted reports of food safety behaviors. A mediation analysis indicated that the work routines measure accounted for the variance in self-reported behavior and mediated any effect of the habit strength measure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the temporal stability of personality: Evidence for differential stability and the role of life experiences.

The authors investigated the stability of personality and trait affect in young adults. In Studies 1 and 2, young adults were retested on a Big Five personality measure and a trait affect inventory over a 2.5-year and a 2-month period, respectively. Results from Study 1 point to positive mean-level changes; participants scored higher on Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness at Time 2. Affectively, participants experienced less negative affect and more positive affect at Time 2. Results from both retests provide clear evidence of differential stability. Affective traits were consistently less stable than the Big Five. Other analyses suggest that life events influence the stability of affective traits more than the Big Five. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Youth gambling behaviors: An examination of the role of resilience.

The study of resilient children has overturned many deficit-focused models concerning the ontogenesis of children raised in adversity. This study explored the relationship between risk and protective factors, resilience, and youth gambling behavior. More specifically, this study examined the relative contribution of various risk and protective domains in relation to problem gambling behavior and examined whether youth identified as resilient (high risk exposure- high internalized protection) were as likely as those identified as vulnerable (high risk exposure-low internalized protection) to engage in excessive gambling behavior. The sample consisted of 1,273 students ages 12 to 19. The findings demonstrated that risk and protective factors each provide a unique contribution to the prediction model of gambling problems. Resilient and vulnerable youth differed significantly in their self-reported gambling severity. As well, resilient youth were not statistically distinguishable from low-risk exposure groups in terms of their gambling severity. Findings are interpreted with respect to resilience and prevention research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A matching-to-sample feedback technique for training self-control of tinnitus.

Treated 30 individuals (aged 24–82 yrs) with subjective tinnitus aurium with a matching-to-sample feedback procedure. Ss' tinnitus sounds were reproduced audiometrically on all characteristics and were presented to them in the noninvolved ear or in both ears when the tinnitus was binaural. This experimental sound was then reduced in 5-db steps within sessions, and Ss had the task of concentrating on reducing the loudness of their tinnitus until a match was achieved between it and the experimental sound at each new db level. Results show a significant difference in db levels from baseline to final training session. Nearly all Ss demonstrated a marked reduction in tinnitus loudness, with several eliminating it completely. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of signaling retention interval length on delayed matching-to-sample in pigeons.

Pigeons were trained initially on a delayed matching task in which colors served as sample and comparison stimuli. During subsequent training, additional stimuli compounded with the sample signaled whether that trial involved a short (1 s) or a long (5 s) delay. In Experiment 1, miscuing reduced accuracy at the short delay markedly and tended to increase accuracy at the long delay slightly. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed a robust effect of cuing when the cues followed sample termination, thereby refuting the view that such cues evoke differential attention to the sample stimulus. Experiment 4 revealed that the cues did not influence rate of forgetting, and Experiment 5 revealed no effect of point of cue placement within the retention interval. It was concluded that cues correlated with retention interval length modulated matching accuracy independently of memory, perhaps by signaling different rates of reinforcement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Further tests of response–outcome associations in differential-outcome matching-to-sample.

Two transfer-of-control experiments assessed pigeons' sensitivity to response-outcome associations in differential-outcome discriminations. In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained on one-to-many matching-to-sample with food and no-food outcomes that were differential or nondifferential with respect to correct choice. The samples were then replaced by novel stimuli that had differential or nondifferential associations with those same outcomes. Transfer of matching occurred only when the novel samples and their respective choice responses had identical differential-outcome associations. Experiment 2 showed that the outcomes themselves were effective samples if the choices they cued yielded those outcomes in training. These data provide further evidence that the relations between comparison choice and consequent outcomes influences pigeons' matching performances. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculine gender role stress in an inpatient sample of alcohol abusers.

Evaluated R. M. Eisler and J. R. Skidmore's (see record 1988-18860-001) Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale in an inpatient sample (N?=?200) of alcohol abusers. Masculine gender role stress (MGRS) refers to the situations in which a man feels unable to live up to male role expectations or is requested to engage in nonmale activities. MGRS is an important concept because it may exacerbate treatment defensiveness and encourage alcohol use as a coping strategy and is associated with poor health habits. The questionnaire was used to identify 4 highly correlated but internally consistent scale factors: inadequate performance, sexual inadequacy, engaging in traditionally feminine behavior, and job inadequacy. Stress regarding inadequate job performance decreased with age and was lower in widowed men than in separated or divorced men. High-MGRS Ss generally scored higher on measures of alcohol abuse than did low-MGRS Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of day-care experience on the use of intentional communicative behaviors in a sample of socioeconomically depressed infants.

The frequency of communicative initiations and the proportion of spontaneous communicative initiations in 2 developmentally based categories—the "showing" and "requesting" functions—were used for the comparison between 40 20-mo-old lower- and middle-class infants. It is concluded that (a) daycare significantly enhanced both the frequency and the developmental level of the communicative initiations of poor Ss and (b) the patterns of developmental levels of communicative initiations Ss used were consistent across functions. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of prescribed and nonprescribed behaviors in estimating the dollar value of performance.

Methods for assessing the standard deviation of dollar-valued work performance (SDy) do not address the issue of whether or not performance of nonprescribed behaviors should be included in the estimation of SDy. We used a policy-capturing approach to see whether supervisors considered nonprescribed behaviors when making dollar judgments about work performance. Seventeen supervisors attached dollar values to 50 profiles of hypothetical computer programmers. Each profile consisted of performance ratings on 10 dimensions of prescribed behavior and 3 dimensions of nonprescribed behavior. Results indicated that most of the supervisors do take nonprescribed behaviors into account when making dollar judgments of work performance. Estimates of SDy derived from the policy-capturing method correlated .45 (p?SDy made by subjects, using the global estimation method (Schmidt, Hunter, McKenzie, & Muldrow, 1979). Implications are discussed for both SDy estimation and treatment of nonprescribed work behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On differential validity and bias.

Responds to J. E. Hunter and F. L. Schmidt's criticism (see record 1979-22562-001) that the present authors underestimated Type I bias and overestimated Type II bias in their analysis of studies of ethnic differences in employment test validity (see record 1978-02212-001). It is suggested that it is premature to dismiss the issue of differential validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of signaled reinforcer magnitude on delayed matching-to-sample performance.

Pigeons were trained in delayed matching-to-sample with red and green key lights. A random half of the trials was accompanied by an auditory signal correlated with a large (4.5 sec) reinforcer, and the other half by a different signal correlated with a small (1.5 sec) reinforcer, for correct matches. Delays varied from trial to trial so that delay gradients could be determined within sessions and separately for large and small reinforcer trials. For all birds, accuracy was higher on large-reinforcer trials, but the average delay gradients were similar in slope. When performance was disrupted by the houselight during the delay interval, by injections of sodium pentobarbital, or by reduced sample duration, accuracy decrements on large-reinforcer trials were equal to or greater than those on small-reinforcer trials. Although these results accord with incentive effects on human memory, they are inconsistent with many findings on resistance to change of free-operant behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)