The automaticity of interpreting Automaticity.

Comments on J. A. Bargh and T. L. Chartrand's (see record 1999-05760-002) treatise on the pervasiveness of automaticity and its relation to self-regulation. While agreeing with Bargh and Chartrand that people do seem to evidence an automaticity of sorts in many behaviors, the present authors disagree with Bargh and Chartrand's interpretation of that automaticity as an empiricist "mechanism." Bargh and Chartrand failed to note that other interpretations are possible for automaticity. Other interpretations of automaticity, founded on philosophical traditions other than empiricism, do exist, and they lead to radically different conclusions. The present authors look at several of the competing interpretations of automaticity, including rationalist and ontological hermeneutics. The conclusions that scientists reach about data are driven as much by the philosophies they implicitly affirm as the data themselves. Before a particular interpretation of automaticity is adopted, psychologists ought to be aware of the different theoretical possibilities that exist and inform such a concept, as well as the conclusions and implications they suggest. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automaticity and the myth of personal agency.

Comments on J. A. Bargh and T. L. Chartrand's (see record 1999-05760-002) treatise on the pervasiveness of automaticity and its relation to self-regulation. According to the present author, both the various arguments presented within, and the actual title of, Bargh and Chartrand's article are a reflection of the expected reactions to and arguments against the article's theme. The notion that people are neither voluntary nor rational architects of their own behavior is indeed unbearable and should most assuredly meet with resistance. It seems a pretty safe bet that psychology will remain as reticent to abandon the notion of personal agency as evolutionary thinkers are to let go of the myth of progress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conscious and nonconscious processes: Implications for self-determination theory.

According to Bargh's Auto-Motive model (Bargh, 1990, 1997a, 1997b; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999), automatic motivational processes are those that are consistently and frequently engaged when environmental cues and contexts similar to that of the past arise. For example, achievement and affiliation have been primed and have been shown to affect behaviour and perceptions in ways similar to conscious activation (e.g., Lakin & Chartrand, 2003). Emerging evidence now suggest that motivational processes related to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be nonconsciously primed and then influence perceptions and behaviours (e.g., Burton, Lydon, D'Alessandro, & Koestner, 2006; Levesque & Pelletier, 2003; Ratelle, Baldwin, & Vallerand, 2005). These nonconscious effects are shown to parallel the conscious effects of motivational processes. These findings challenge researchers interested in SDT and other humanistic theories to think about whether all behaviours and forms of regulation can be nonconsciously determined. In the present paper, the authors argue that automatic nonconscious processes are not always maladaptive and that autonomous (self-determined) as well as controlled forms of motivation can be automatically and nonconsciously activated. However, the authors also argue that conscious processes are essential to our daily experiences and necessary to modulate the manifestation and expression of nonconscious processes that are negative or detrimental to growth or well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Mood contagion": The automatic transfer of mood between persons.

The current studies aimed to find out whether a nonintentional form of mood contagion exists and which mechanisms can account for it. In these experiments participants who expected to be tested for text comprehension listened to an affectively neutral speech that was spoken in a slightly sad or happy voice. The authors found that (a) the emotional expression induced a congruent mood state in the listeners, (b) inferential accounts to emotional sharing were not easily reconciled with the findings, (c) different affective experiences emerged from intentional and nonintentional forms of emotional sharing, and (d) findings suggest that a perception–behavior link (T. L. Chartrand & J. A. Bargh, 1999) can account for these findings, because participants who were required to repeat the philosophical speech spontaneously imitated the target person's vocal expression of emotion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic Affective Evaluation Does Not Automatically Predispose for Arm Flexion and Extension.

Affect may have the function of preparing organisms for action, enabling approach and avoidance behavior. M. Chen and J. A. Bargh (1999) suggested that affective processing automatically resulted in action tendencies for arm flexion and extension. The crucial question is, however, whether automaticity of evaluation was actually achieved or whether their results were due to nonautomatic, conscious processing. When faces with emotional expressions were evaluated consciously, similar effects were obtained as in the M. Chen and J. A. Bargh study. When conscious evaluation was reduced, however, no action tendencies were observed, whereas affective processing of the faces was still evident from affective priming effects. The results suggest that tendencies for arm flexion and extension are not automatic consequences of automatic affective information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior.

This study tested the idea of habits as a form of goal-directed automatic behavior. Expanding on the idea that habits are mentally represented as associations between goals and actions, it was proposed that goals are capable of activating the habitual action. More specifically, when habits are established (e.g., frequent cycling to the university), the very activation of the goal to act (e.g., having to attend lectures at the university) automatically evokes the habitual response (e.g., bicycle). Indeed, it was tested and confirmed that, when behavior is habitual, behavioral responses are activated automatically. In addition, the results of 3 experiments indicated that (1) the automaticity in habits is conditional on the presence of an active goal (cf., goal-dependent automaticity; J. A. Bargh, 1989), supporting the idea that habits are mentally represented as goal—action links, and (2) the formation of implementation intentions (i.e., the creation of a strong mental link between a goal and action) may simulate goal-directed automaticity in habits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Variability in the likelihood of automatic attitude activation: Data reanalysis and commentary on Bargh, Chaiken, Govender, and Pratto (1992).

Addresses the conclusion by J. A. Bargh et al (see record 1992-33847-001) that automatic attitude activation depends not on the idiosyncratic strength of the association in memory between an attitude object and an individual's evaluation of the object but on normative considerations constant across individuals. A variety of difficulties with the bases for this conclusion are discussed. Moreover, additional analyses of the Bargh et al data reveal the superiority of an idiosyncratic measure of associative strength (a given individual's latency of response to an attitudinal inquiry) in predicting automatic attitude activation over the various normative measures (latency, extremity, ambivalence, polarization, and consensus or consistency) that were examined. These results support the theoretical premise that attitude activation varies as a function of position along an idiosyncratically defined attitude–nonattitude continuum. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Tryon.

The author responds to Tryon's article, "Psychology in Flux: The Academic-Professional Bipolarity" (American Psychologist, 1963, 18, 134-143; see record 1964-01637-001) in which Tryon writes, "It is doubtful that academic psychology does or should have much direct [sic] applicability to real life situations [p. 142]." The present author takes issue with this, stating that the fallacy inherent in such statements must be recognized, as well as how these only serve to perpetuate a straw man in psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing Mediational Models With Longitudinal Data: Questions and Tips in the Use of Structural Equation Modeling.

R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny (1986; see record 1987-13085-001) provided clarion conceptual and methodological guidelines for testing mediational models with cross-sectional data. Graduating from cross-sectional to longitudinal designs enables researchers to make more rigorous inferences about the causal relations implied by such models. In this transition, misconceptions and erroneous assumptions are the norm. First, we describe some of the questions that arise (and misconceptions that sometimes emerge) in longitudinal tests of mediational models. We also provide a collection of tips for structural equation modeling (SEM) of mediational processes. Finally, we suggest a series of 5 steps when using SEM to test mediational processes in longitudinal designs: testing the measurement model, testing for added components, testing for omitted paths, testing the stationarity assumption, and estimating the mediational effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental and cognitive control of behavior.

Discusses the controversy between theories of environmental (stimulus) and cognitive control of behavior. A multiplicity of problems is involved, including differences in conceptions of the epistemological foundations of psychology, strategies of research, and theoretical construction. It is proposed that in terms of the empirical component, the controversy can be reduced to the causal origin of behavior, in either environmental events or the manner in which the organism interprets available information. An analysis of discrimination-shift behavior suggests that human development can be characterized by transition from a single-unit to a mediational control model in which responses under direct control of external stimulation become regulated by self-generated symbolic cues representing conceptual categories. Implications of this developmental mediational viewpoint for conceptual behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Controlled outcome research in psychotherapy: The group comparison approach reassessed.

Contends that the group comparison approach to treatment outcome research is sometimes rejected on the grounds that it ignores individual differences. The present author argues that this rejection is based on a misunderstanding of the research strategy involved and that the group comparison approach, in the framework of a multifactorial design, can reveal those individual differences that are important (i.e., the factors that affect outcome). (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses to norepinephrine of normal and "ischemic" canine Purkinje fibers are consistent with activation of different alpha 1-receptor subtypes

INTRODUCTION: Previously we found that WB4101 (WB) 10(-7) M competitively blocks three alpha 1-adrenergic receptor-effector responses: the increase in normal automaticity occurring in Purkinje fibers (PF) at high membrane potentials; the increase in abnormal automaticity occurring in PF at depolarized membrane potentials; and the prolongation of PF action potential duration. These observations are consistent with two different hypotheses: (1) WB blocks a single alpha 1-receptor subtype, which subserves different effector pathways; and (2) WB blocks different receptor subtypes, each of which subserves an independent pathway. The aim of this study was to test both hypotheses. METHODS AND RESULTS: We used standard microelectrode techniques to study the concentration-dependent actions of three alpha 1-adrenoreceptor blockers (WB [alpha 1A > or = alpha 1D], 5-methylurapidil [5-MU] [alpha 1A > > alpha 1D], and UK52,046 [nonselective]) or norepinephrine (NE) effects in normal PF and in PF depolarized with a simulated ischemic solution ([K+]o = 10 mM; pO2 < 20 mmHg; pH 6.8; maximum diastolic potential -60 +/- 1 mV). In normally polarized PF, concentration-dependent actions of all blockers on both the positive chronotropic response and the prolongation of action potential duration completely coincide. In contrast, the response to NE of abnormal automaticity in "ischemic" PF differs from normals: there is a high sensitivity to WB and 5-MU and no response to UK52,046. CONCLUSIONS: (1) A single receptor subtype appears responsible for both the alpha 1-induced prolongation of repolarization and the positive chronotropic effect in normal PF. (2) Two different receptor subtypes may be responsible for the alpha 1-induced effects on automaticity in normal and ischemic fibers. It is likely that the latter one is alpha 1A, and that consideration of antiarrhythmic therapy with alpha 1-adrenergic blockers should focus on this subtype as a potential target.     

Visual mediational instruction: Reducing interference within visual and aural multiple-discrimination tasks.

In two investigations, involving 50 male and 50 female college undergraduate subjects 18–24 years old, we compared differences in the learning of a highly interfering paired-associate discrimination task with and without the use of visual mediational cues. In computerized training, subjects were taught to discriminate between various International Morse Code symbols, given visually and/or aurally, and to respond with the appropriate paired letter of the alphabet. When presented with visual stimuli during a test situation, those subjects taught to use visual mediators significantly increased correct discriminations immediately, as well as 7 and 90 days after training. In addition, when given only aural stimuli during a test situation, those subjects previously trained with visual mediators recalled significantly more correct responses than those receiving training involving only aural or visual stimuli. Visual mediational instruction was shown to significantly reduce interference between the highly similar Morse Code symbols and to facilitate their association with the proper alphabet letter. Further research and applications of mediational instruction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancy challenge and drinking reduction: Experimental evidence for a mediational process.

Substantial correlational evidence supports a causal (mediational) interpretation of alcohol expectancy operation, but definitive support requires a true experimental test. Thus, moderately to heavily drinking male college students were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions in a pre–post design: expectancy challenge (designed to manipulate expectancy levels), "traditional" information, and assessment-only control. Expectancy challenge produced significant drinking decreases, compared with the other 2 groups. Decreases in measured expectancies paralleled drinking decreases in the challenge condition. Significant increases in alcohol knowledge in the traditional program were not associated with decreased drinking. These experimental findings support a causal (mediational) interpretation of expectancy operation. The implications for a cognitive (memory) model of expectancies and for prevention and intervention programs for problem drinking and alcoholism are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The rat as a predator.

Replies to P. E. Van Hemel (see record 1974-27246-001) who charged that the present author used "inadequate logic and questionable interpretation" of some experimental findings in suggesting that the rat's mouse-killing response is predatory. The present author states that the criteria used in making the classification were taxonomic devices, not syllogistic premises; as such, their use in classifying the mouse-killing response as predatory is not illogical. It is also noted that a predatory interpretation of the response does not limit research--it generates testable hypotheses concerning the phenomenon. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Parental licensure": Rejoinder.

Responds to comments by R. E. Redding (see record 2002-08415-038) and by the American Association of Spinal Cord Injury Psychologists and Social Workers et al (see record 2002-08415-039) on the present author's original article (see American Psychologist, 2001, Vol 56, 885-894) which advocated parental licensing, a process requiring prospective parents to meet legislatively defined criteria before they could conceive or adopt children. Redding argued the unconstitutionality of this proposal, and the American Association of Spinal Cord Injury Psychologists and Social Workers et al took issue with Lykken's statement that persons "incapacitated by physical or mental disorder" be required to submit to a special dispensation by the family court to be licensed. The author responds that other legal scholars support the proposal of parental licensure, while they note that under the current judiciary, such measures would confront many obstacles. The author also explains his use of "incapacitated" with reference to the disabled with the intent to reflect the inability to perform basic and necessary parental functions as a consequence of mental or physical disease. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysmentia.

Comments on the calling of certain types of retardation dysmentia. The author states that emotional deprivation in early childhood is a well known cause of simulated retardation. At the present time the idea of functional retardation (as shown by psychological testing) with better or normal inherent capacities is expressed by such terms as "pseudoretardation," "apparent feeblemindedness," or "mental deficiency," or other similar combinations. The author suggests that these cases be called dysmentia to indicate disturbance in mental functioning as it applies to the intellectual spheres, and which may be temporary. This would give a more hopeful attitude towards such patients and ipso facto call for further follow-up and/or testing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recommendations for training in the use of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Comments on the article by E. D. Rossini and R. J. Moretti (see record 1997-04849-016) regarding interpretation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The present author notes that issues of test validity, use of quantified scoring systems, and appropriate normative data when interpreting the TAT were ignored. The present author notes that one should not evade issues of validity by alluding to "self-conferred expert clinical judgment." It is also argued that because predictive methods have almost always been more accurate than or as accurate as clinicians, it is inappropriate to assert that such expertise is exactly what the master psychodiagnostician offers beyond actuarial personality evaluation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)