The unbearable automaticity of being.

What was noted by E. J. Langer (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did Langer, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and behavior. Three major forms of automatic self-regulation are identified: an automatic effect of perception on action, automatic goal pursuit, and a continual automatic evaluation of one's experience. From the accumulating evidence, the authors conclude that these various nonconscious mental systems perform the lion's share of the self-regulatory burden, beneficently keeping the individual grounded in his or her current environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The automaticity of emotion recognition.

Evolutionary accounts of emotion typically assume that humans evolved to quickly and efficiently recognize emotion expressions because these expressions convey fitness-enhancing messages. The present research tested this assumption in 2 studies. Specifically, the authors examined (a) how quickly perceivers could recognize expressions of anger, contempt, disgust, embarrassment, fear, happiness, pride, sadness, shame, and surprise; (b) whether accuracy is improved when perceivers deliberate about each expression's meaning (vs. respond as quickly as possible); and (c) whether accurate recognition can occur under cognitive load. Across both studies, perceivers quickly and efficiently (i.e., under cognitive load) recognized most emotion expressions, including the self-conscious emotions of pride, embarrassment, and shame. Deliberation improved accuracy in some cases, but these improvements were relatively small. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the cognitive processes underlying emotion recognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Minding minds: Evolving a reflexive mind by interpreting others.

Reviews the book, Minding minds: Evolving a reflexive mind by interpreting others by Radu J. Bogdan (see record 2000-07328-000). Drawing on philosophical, psychological, and evolutionary perspectives, Bogdan analyzes the main phylogenetic and ontogenetic stages through which primates’ abilities to interpret other minds evolved and gradually created the opportunities and resources for mental reflexivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic assumptions of automaticity.

Comments on J. A. Bargh and T. L. Chartrand's (see record 1999-05760-002) treatise on the pervasiveness of automaticity and its relation to self-regulation. Although Bargh and Chartrand pointed to the philosophy underlying current psychological theories about human activity, according to the present author they confused many important philosophical issues in presenting their argument. A specific point of contention is Bargh and Chartrand's misinterpretation of humanistic psychology as proposing a "causal self" as a mediator between the environment and one's responses to it. Such stimulus–organism–response formulations propose that aspects of the organism such as intention or will are shaped by and caused from without or from within by environmental or biological determinants. Thus, humanists cannot be endorsing a mediational model of activity. This misunderstanding by Bargh and Chartrand is important because such a misunderstanding of the debate between humanists and behaviorists allowed Bargh and Chartrand to erroneously subsume the humanists under the conceptual umbrella of mediational behaviorism. According to the present author, Bargh and Chartrand offered a narrow, and in some cases inaccurate, picture of the theoretical underpinnings of automaticity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spontaneous versus directed recognition: The relativity of automaticity.

Examined the contrast between spontaneous and directed recognition by using the flanker paradigm. It was reasoned that spontaneous recognition of a flanking word would be reflected by the influence that word had on recognition of a target word. In a first experiment, when attention was divided at test, recognition decisions were made more rapidly when flanker and target words were congruent, rather than incongruent, with regard to the response they dictated. In later experiments, the authors attempted to specify factors that influence spontaneous recognition of a flanking word and examined the effects of number of prior presentations and physical similarity between study and test. To anticipate, the nature of the results leads to questioning whether recognition is ever truly spontaneous. The findings are discussed in relation to the relativity of automaticity (O. Neumann, 1984). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive versus inference..

Expresses reservations concerning not the content but the vocabulary used by R. B. Zajonc in his article on feeling and thinking (see record 1980-09733-001). The vocabulary serves to perpetuate a pervasive confusion among several legitimate senses of the words cognitive and inference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modularity in musical processing: The automaticity of harmonic priming.

Three experiments investigated the modularity of harmonic expectations that are based on cultural schemata despite the availability of more predictive veridical information. Participants were presented with prime–target chord pairs and made an intonation judgment about each target. Schematic expectation was manipulated by the combination of prime and target, with some transitions being schematically more probable than others. Veridical information in the form of prime–target previews, local transition probabilities, or valid versus invalid previews was also provided. Processing was facilitated when a schematically probable target chord followed the prime. Furthermore, this effect was independent of all manipulations of veridical expectation. A solution to L. B. Meyer's (1967b) query "On Rehearing Music" is suggested, in which schematic knowledge contributes to harmonic expectation in a modular manner regardless of whether any veridical knowledge exists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The illusion of mental health.

Argues that researchers' reliance on "objective" mental health scales and disregard for clinical judgment has led to many mistaken conclusions. Specifically, standard mental health scales appear unable to distinguish between genuine mental health and the facade or illusion of mental health created by psychological defenses. Evidence is presented indicating that (1) many people who look healthy on standard and mental health scales are not psychologically healthy and (2) illusory mental health (based on defensive denial of distress) has psychological costs and may be a risk factor for medical illness. Clinical judges could distinguish genuine from illusory mental health, whereas "objective" mental health scales could not. The findings call into question the conclusions of many previous studies that rest on standard mental health scales. They suggest new ways of understanding how psychological factors may influence health. Finally, they suggest that clinical methods (which researchers often malign) may have an important role to play in meaningful mental health research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When effect sizes disagree: The case of r and d.

The increased use of effect sizes in single studies and meta-analyses raises new questions about statistical inference. Choice of an effect-size index can have a substantial impact on the interpretation of findings. The authors demonstrate the issue by focusing on two popular effect-size measures, the correlation coefficient and the standardized mean difference (e.g., Cohen's d or Hedges's g), both of which can be used when one variable is dichotomous and the other is quantitative. Although the indices are often practically interchangeable, differences in sensitivity to the base rate or variance of the dichotomous variable can alter conclusions about the magnitude of an effect depending on which statistic is used. Because neither statistic is universally superior, researchers should explicitly consider the importance of base rates to formulate correct inferences and justify the selection of a primary effect-size statistic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The repeated reproduction of Bartlett's Remembering.

There is a striking parallel between the treatment of F. C. Bartlett's theories of memory in the psychological literature and Bartlett's own characterization of reproductive memory as interest driven and constructive. Three periods of intensified interest in Bartlett's classic book Remembering (1932/1995) can be identified. The lst occurred in the wake of the publication of Remembering and focused on replication and extension of the empirical work. The 2nd was during the period of the "cognitive revolution" and treated Bartlett's key theoretical concept of "schema" within an information-processing framework. The 3rd is an ongoing revitalization of interest in the cultural and social aspects of Bartlett's multifaceted theory. Each wave of increased interest in Bartlett's work has brought different aspects of his thinking to the fore, producing different versions of his theory of remembering that reflect the theoretical climate of the time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Ya Gotta School of Psychology.

Author questions to what extent, if any, has psychology undercut old fashioned self-reliance and personal accountability through the popularization of "adjustment" to others, to the environment; of "understanding" (excusing?) failure; of adjusting standards to "conditions"? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An analysis of memory-based theories of automaticity.

Memory-based theories of automaticity predict that performance in a memory search task which is automatic will not require a representation of the memory set in working memory. The information contained in working memory was manipulated by inserting an interference task between the presentation of a memory set and a probe stimulus in a memory search task. The interference task prevented rehearsal, necessitating the retrieval of the memory set from long-term memory in variably mapped (VM) conditions. Performance in consistently mapped (CM) conditions provided strong support for memory-based theories of automaticity. With CM practice, both the effects of memory load and the effect of the interference task were eliminated. Furthermore, there was a temporal coupling in the reduction of these two effects with consistent practice. Monte Carlo simulations of memory-based automaticity predict such a temporal coupling. Automaticity is viewed as a continuum reflecting the relative contribution of the direct memory access of past solutions from long-term memory on performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Madhouse and The Lobotomist.

Reviews the books, Madhouse: A Tragic Tale of Megalomania and Modern Medicine by Andrew Scull (see record 2005-06776-000); and The Lobotomist: A Maverick Medical Genius and His Tragic Quest to Rid the World of Mental Illness by Jack El-Hai (see record 2005-02343-000). In both books, the history of experimental clinical psychiatry is laid bare with devastating accounts of the efforts to conquer mental illness by any means necessary. Both books are fascinating reading and may illuminate our current context in which the biological avenues for treating mental disorders continue to traffic in hopes of a one-size-fits-all cure, while psychoanalysis ambivalently struggles with how to conduct rigorous research to demonstrate the efficacy of our treatment. Andrew Scull's book Madhouse offers a well-documented historical account of a bizarre episode in American psychiatric history. The centerpiece of Scull's investigative work is Henry Cotton, MD, the superintendent of the Trenton State Hospital in Trenton, New Jersey, from 1907-1930. Once Cotton arrived at Trenton, he was appalled by the conditions he found and instituted reforms such as eliminating the culture of violence by attendants, removing over 700 pieces of restraining equipment from the hospital, and introducing occupational therapy. Jack El-Hai gives us the next segment of psychiatric surgery in his book The Lobotomist, a biography of the neurologist, turned surgical outlaw, Walter Freeman, MD. Walter Freeman was a neurologist fascinated with science and experimentation. Settling into work at St. Elizabeth's hospital in Washington, DC, in 1924, Freeman eventually joined the faculty of George Washington University where he remained until 1954. At that time neurosyphilis was the scourge of mental hospitals producing thousands of victims who were totally disabled by the neurological sequellae of tertiary illness. Thus lobotomy became an efficient outpatient procedure that could be applied to a larger patient population. Both of these books are important reading. Of all the great medical advances of the last century, surely the one that stands out as perhaps the greatest is the Nuremberg Code of 1947, which requires a competent patient giving informed consent to treatment and to research efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On interpreting correlation coefficients.

Comments on E. R. Harcum's (see record 1989-31713-001) discussion of the inappropriate use of modifiers to describe statistical significance and notes that researchers and clinicians in psychological and educational testing often assume (overinterpret) that 2 tests measure the same thing just because they correlate moderately highly with each other. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dolphin's (Tursiops truncatus) understanding of human gazing and pointing: Knowing what and where.

The authors tested whether the understanding by dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) of human pointing and head-gazing cues extends to knowing the identity of an indicated object as well as its location. In Experiment 1, the dolphins Phoenix and Akeakamai processed the identity of a cued object (of 2 that were present), as shown by their success in selecting a matching object from among 2 alternatives remotely located. Phoenix was errorless on first trials in this task. In Experiment 2, Phoenix reliably responded to a cued object in alternate ways, either by matching it or by acting directly on it, with each type of response signaled by a distinct gestural command given after the indicative cue. She never confused matching and acting. In Experiment 3, Akeakamai was able to process the geometry of pointing cues (but not head-gazing cues), as revealed by her errorless responses to either a proximal or distal object simultaneously present, when each object was indicated only by the angle at which the informant pointed. The overall results establish that these dolphins could identify, through indicative cues alone, what a human is attending to as well as where. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Consumer Reports mental health survey.

Provides an overview of the 1995 Consumer Reports survey of the effectiveness of psychotherapy. Specific issues addressed include the study's goals; the findings for mental health professionals, family doctors, and self-help groups; and methodological strengths and weaknesses related to external validity, sampling, controls, self-reports, and time frame. The data show that, free of the artificial constraints of controlled studies in the real world, a population of consumers can often benefit from psychological intervention services. Real relief can be found at the hands of professional mental health providers. M. Kotkin et al reaffirm their independence from M. E. P. Seligman (see record 1996-13324-001) regarding the interpretation of the data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Power of the Brown v. Board of Education Decision: Theorizing Threats to Sustainability.

Interviews with African American and White American elders capture the immediate power of the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision and the biography of its impact over time. This article reviews the lived experience of the decision and theorizes 3 threats to sustainability that ruthlessly undermined the decision over time: (a) the unacknowledged and enormous sacrifice endured by the African American community in the name of desegregation; b) the violent and relentless resistance to the decision by government officials, educators, and many White community members; and (c) the dramatic shrinkage of the vision of Brown from the dismantling of White supremacy to a technical matter of busing. Implications are drawn for the study of desegregation and for the study of sustainability of social justice more broadly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Drogues et dependances and Toxicomanies.

Reviews the books, Drogues et dépendances by Jef-Louis Bonnardeaux (1983) and Toxicomanies by Dollard Cormier (1983. The book by Bonnardeaux is clearly written and is accompanied by illustrations. However, one doubts the utility of the representation of many biochemical formulas. One wishes also for a better structuring of the various chapters. The book by Cormier is an excellent complement to the Bonnardeaux book. Drug addiction is presented as a life style expressing a solution to problems of existence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Values: The enfant terrible of psychotherapy.

Cites clinical examples, personal experience, and empirical research demonstrating that the values of psychotherapists affect diagnoses, as well as the process and goals of therapy. Some therapists believe that values should not influence therapy. Thus, indirect ways of dissemination of values may be used as shown by clinical illustrations. The author holds a value-determined image of psychotherapy, in which therapeutic schools are viewed as "perceptual houses" to which the client is being converted. The advantages of making the public aware of the role of values in psychotherapy are briefly discussed. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)