On the formation of porosity and microchannels in growing scales

It is well known that oxide scales develop porosity and microchannels that permit inward transport of molecular species from the ambient gas even under conditions when there is no evidence of cracking of the scales. It is proposed that such porosity and microchannels develop as a result of grain growth and of plastic deformation (grain-boundary sliding, diffusion creep, etc.) under compressive stresses in the scales. The presence of small amounts of impurities enriched at grain boundaries in the scales may greatly affect deformation and mechanical and transport properties in scales.     

The mechanical properties of nickel oxide and their relationship to the morphology of thick oxide scales formed on nickel

The oxidation of metals that form P-type semiconducting oxide scales, such as NiO on nickel and CoO on cobalt, takes place by outward cation diffusion and inward vacancy diffusion. The large number of cation vacancies precipitate in the scale near the oxide-metal interface and may coalesce to form macroscopic pores, resulting in a transition from a dense, columnar scale to a duplex scale which contains an inner, fine-grained, equiaxed, porous layer. Increasing temperature and/or purity eliminate the transition, which has been found to depend upon oxide plasticity. The mechanical properties of bulk nickel oxides having a range of porosities have been studied in compression. Three regimes were observed: (1) brittle at low temperatures, (2) ductile at elevated temperatures, and (3) a transition region at intermediate temperatures. Fracture strength in the brittle region was strongly dependent on porosity due to the effect of pores on the elastic modulus and the size of fracture-initiating flaws. The plastic flow stress in the ductile region depended primarily on grain size and impurity content except for very porous materials in which porosity substantially reduced the plastic flow stress. The development of the duplex structure in scales during oxidation has been shown to depend upon inhibition of slip on the {110} 110 system in the highly textured grains rather than by diffusion-controlled processes such as creep. The duplex structure forms when the rate of deformation of the scale is less than the rate of void formation. Grain size, porosity, and impurities play an important role; all of these effects are discussed in detail.Research sponsored by the Office of Naval Research, Mathematics and Information Sciences Division, under Contract ONR N00014-69-A-0200-4021, NR-048-239.     

第二相在Mg-Gd-Y-Zr合金挤压棒超塑性变形中的作用

采用电子显微镜和XRD研究分析Mg-Gd-Y-Zr合金挤压棒材超塑性拉伸前后的微观组织及其超塑性机制。结果表明:在温度为450℃、应变速率为2×10-4s-1的变形条件下获得的挤压棒的最大伸长率为410%,应变速率敏感系数为0.54;合金表观变形激活能远高于镁的晶界扩散激活能或晶格扩散激活能,超塑性变形机制为晶格扩散控制的位错协调晶界滑动机制;微孔洞在基体/方形富稀土相界面处萌生,较软的不规则块状β相承受部分塑性变形,松弛了相界处应力集中。     

Load relaxation and creep behavior of a spray cast hypereutectic Al-25Si-2Cu-1Mg alloy

We studied the high temperature deformation behavior of a spray cast Al-25Si-2Cu-1Mg alloy within the framework of an internal variable theory for inelastic deformation. We then carried out a series of load relaxation tests at elevated temperatures to obtain flow curves between flow stress and strain rate. The results were analyzed based on constitutive relations prescribed by an internal variable theory. The hypereutectic Al-25Si-2Cu-1Mg alloy exhibited two distinctly different deformation modes, viz. plastic deformation induced by dislocation glides and creep deformation by dislocation climbs at high temperatures. These load relaxation test results were then compared with those obtained from a series of creep tests performed at elevated temperatures under various stress levels. They were found to agree well with each other, providing a means to replace the time-consuming creep test by a simple load relaxation test in order to obtain high temperature creep data.     

Studies of deformation mechanisms in ultra-fine-grained and nanostructured Zn

The temperature, strain rate, grain size and grain size distribution effects on plastic deformation in ultra-fine-grained (UFG) and nanocrystalline Zn are systematically studied. The decrease of ductility with the decrease of average grain size could be an inherent effect in nanocrystalline materials, that is, not determined by processing artifacts. The superior ductility observed in UFG Zn may originate from both dislocation creep within large grains and grain boundary sliding of small nanograins. The stress exponent for dislocation creep is about 6.6. The activation energy for plastic deformation in UFG Zn is close to the activation energy for grain boundary self diffusion in pure Zn.     

Deformation of fine-grained alumina by grain boundary sliding accommodated by slip

Creep data from over 40 different polycrystalline alumina materials are reviewed. Most of these studies have attempted to describe the creep data using models based on diffusional creep. In the present paper, however, it is concluded that the dominant deformation mechanism in creep of fine-grained alumina is grain boundary sliding (GBS) accommodated by slip. The slip accommodation process is related to the sequential steps of dislocation glide and climb. When the accommodation process for GBS is that of dislocation climb, the stress exponent is always 2. In this case, the activation energy for creep is either that for oxygen ion diffusion in the lattice or that for oxygen ion diffusion in the grain boundary. When the accommodation process for GBS is that of solute-drag dislocation glide, the stress exponent is 1. For this case, the activation energy is that for solute diffusion at the dislocation site during glide.     

Steady-State Creep Behavior of Super304H Austenitic Steel at Elevated Temperatures

Creep behavior of Super304 H austenitic steel has been investigated at elevated temperatures of 923-973 K and at applied stress of 190-210 MPa.The results show that the apparent stress exponent and activation energy in the creep deformation range from 16.2 to 27.4 and from 602.1 to 769.3 kJ/mol at different temperatures,respectively.These high values imply the presence of a threshold stress due to an interaction between the dislocations and Cu-rich precipitates during creep deformation.The creep mechanism is associated with the dislocation climbing governed by the matrix lattice diffusion.The origin of the threshold stress is mainly attributed to the coherency strain induced in the matrix by Cu-rich precipitates.The theoretically estimated threshold stresses from Cu-rich precipitates agree reasonably with the experimental results.     

超声振动对材料流变行为的影响机制

设计了材料局部超声波与压力载荷耦合的压痕实验装置,以7050铝合金和哈氏C-276镍基合金为实验材料进行挤压实验,研究超声振动挤压对材料单点流变行为的影响规律及传能机理。研究表明,超声能对材料单点受载的塑性变形具有降载、提效双重效应;经分析论证,在局部流变的界面上叠加超声场时,变形区金属以脉冲方式产生滑移流变;同时滑移脉冲激励滑移体内部粒子的谐振响应,产生高能的短波声子,传播到变形区高密度位错晶界,导致这些区域粒子能量的跃迁,并最终转化为材料的塑性变形能。     

Deformation behavior of Mg–Zn–Y alloys reinforced by icosahedral quasicrystalline particles

New Mg-rich Mg–Zn–Y alloys, reinforced by quasicrystalline particles, have been developed by thermomechanical processes. The deformation behavior of these alloys at room and elevated temperatures has been investigated. Yield strength of these alloys, which increases with an increase in the volume fraction of quasicrystalline particles, is relatively high due to their strengthening effect. The variation of the flow stress in the alloys is characterized by linking the microstructural evolution during deformation at high temperatures. The flow softening is related to dynamic recrystallization developed under the dislocation climb controlled creep; the flow hardening is related to grain growth that occurs under the grain boundary diffusion controlled creep. Quasicrystalline particles in the Mg–Zn–Y alloys resist coarsening due to their low interfacial energy, thereby forming of stable quasicrystalline particle/matrix interface and also prohibit against microstructural evolution of the α-Mg matrix during deformation at temperatures up to near the eutectic temperature. Stability of both quasicrystalline particles and matrix microstructure in the Mg–Zn–Y alloys provides large elongation to failure with no void formation at the quasicrystalline particle/matrix interface.     

High-Temperature Creep Behavior and Microstructural Evolution of a Cu-Nb Co-Alloyed Ferritic Heat-Resistant Stainless Steel

The creep behavior of Fe–17 Cr–1.2 Cu–0.5 Nb–0.01 C ferritic heat-resistant stainless steel was investigated at temperatures ranging from 973 to 1123 K and stresses from 15 to 90 MPa. The evolution of precipitates after creep deformation was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersion spectrum, and transmission electron microscopy. The minimum creep rate decreased with the decrease in the applied load and temperature, thereby extending the rupture life. Cu-rich phase and Nb-rich Laves particles were generated in dominant quantities during the creep process, and the co-growth relationship between them could be detected. Creep rupture was featured by ductile fracture with considerable necking. As increasing the temperature and decreasing the stress, the softening of the metal matrix was accelerated, showing more obvious plastic fl ow. The true stress exponent and activation energy were 4.9 and 375.5 kJ/mol, respectively, indicating that the creep deformation was dominated by the diffusion-controlled dislocation creep mechanism involving precipitate-dislocation interactions. Based on the creep rupture data obtained, the Monkman–Grant relation and Larson-Miller parameter were established, which described the creep rupture life for the studied steel well.     

Oxygen Transport during the High Temperature Oxidation of Pure Nickel

The high temperature oxidation of nickel has been investigated in air under atmospheric pressure in the temperature range 600–900°C. The oxidation kinetic curves deviate from the parabolic law for temperatures over 800°C. The observation of scale morphologies and the use of two stage oxidation experiments under ¹⁶O₂/¹⁸O₂ atmospheres showed that oxygen transport through the NiO scale had to be taken into consideration during the oxidation process. Despite the main outward diffusion of Ni species through the oxide scale, the inward oxygen diffusion at lower temperatures (<800°C) or the oxygen transport, probably as molecular species, via pores or micro-cracks were found to play a major role in the formation of duplex oxide scales, made of small equiaxed oxide grains at the metal/oxide interface overgrown by larger columnar grains at the gas/oxide interface. Oxygen diffusion coefficients into thermally grown NiO scales were determined and compared to the values of Ni diffusion coefficients from the literature.     

Creep deformation behavior of Sn-3.5Ag solder at small length scales

To adequately characterize the behavior of solder spheres in electronic packaging, their mechanical behavior needs to be studied at small-length scales. The creep behavior of single Sn-3.5Ag solder spheres on a copper substrate was studied between 25°C and 130°C using a microforce testing system. In the low-stress regime, the creep stress exponent changed from 6 at lower temperatures to 4 at higher temperatures, indicating creep by dislocation climb. The activation energy for creep was also found to be temperature dependent, and correlated with values for dislocation core diffusion and lattice diffusion in pure tin. A change in the stress exponent with increasing stress was also observed and explained in terms of a threshold stress for dislocation motion, due to the presence of obstacles in the form of Ag₃Sn particles. For more information, contact N. Chawla, Arizona State University, Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering, Tempe, AZ 85287-6006; e-mail nchawla@asu.edu.     

Plastic deformation behaviour of fine-grained materials

A phase mixture model in which a polycrystalline material is regarded as a mixture of a crystalline phase and a grain-boundary phase is presented. The model aims to describe the plastic deformation behaviour of fine-grained materials. The mechanical properties of the crystalline phase are modelled using unified viscoplastic constitutive relations, which take dislocation density evolution and diffusion creep into account. The total strain rate of a crystallite is calculated by summation of the contributions of dislocation, boundary diffusion and lattice diffusion mechanisms. The deformation mechanism for the grain-boundary phase is modelled as a diffusional flow of matter through the grain boundary. Using a simple rule of mixtures, the grain size dependence of the overall plastic deformation behaviour of the material is analysed. Rate effects are also investigated. The results of the calculations are compared with previously published experimental data.     

Stress relaxation behavior of Ti-6Al-4V alloy

1　INTRODUCTIONTi 6Al 4VisoneofthemostimportantTial loys[1,2 ] .Butthisalloyhasbadformabilityforitshighelasticresilience .Therefore ,hotsizingisimpor tant[36 ] .Asthebaseofhotsizing ,thestudyofstressrelaxationhasimportanttheoreticalvalueandpracticalsignificance .Ontheotherhand ,Ti 6Al 4Visusedasfastenermaterialssometimes .Whenthefastenersworkatthetemperaturehigherthanroomtemperature ,stressrelaxationmayresultsinacci dents .Sohowtopreventthestressrelaxationisveryimportant[7] .Uptonow ,…     

Creep resistance of as-cast Mg-5Al-5Ca-2Sn alloy

In the present study, creep properties of as-cast Mg-5Al-5Ca-2Sn(AXT552) alloy were investigated by means of a GWT304 creep testing machine at temperatures of 175 °C and 200 °C in the stress range of 35-90 MPa. Results show that creep rates increase with applied stress at an identical temperature. Creep strain at 100 hours is 0.0518% and 0.083% at creep conditions of 175°C/75 MPa and 200°C/60 MPa, respectively, which is comparable to MRI230 D and much lower than most of AX series alloys. By the observation and analysis for samples before and after creep tests using a Shimadzu XRD-7000 type X-ray diffractometer(XRD) and a Hitachi S-3400 N type scanning electron microscope(SEM), it was found that Al_2Ca(C15) phase precipitated out of C36 phase or matrix. The cavity formation and connection at the interface of soft matrix and hard intermetallics caused the propagation of cracking along the eutectic phase during creep process and dislocation accommodated grain/phase boundary sliding is expected to be the dominant creep mechanism.     

2214铝合金超塑性变形机制

温轧态２２１４铝合金在超塑性变形过程中，由于动态回复和动态再结晶的作用，使晶内位错密度在一定程度上保持平衡。超塑性变形的主要机制为晶界滑动；晶内位错滑移和扩散蠕变作为重要的协调机制，促进了晶界滑动的顺利进行。该合金的超塑性变形机制符合位错协调晶界滑动模型。     

Experimental evidence for diffusion creep in the superplastic 3 mol% yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia

Although there have been numerous studies on the high temperature deformation characteristics of the superplastic 3 mol% yttria stabilized tetragonal zirconia (3YTZ), the rate controlling deformation mechanism has not been identified unambiguously. In the present study, experiments were conducted on 3YTZ at high stresses and at coarser grain sizes than used conventionally for superplasticity. The experimental results reveal, for the first time, an intragranular dislocation motion controlled high stress regime that is independent of the grain size. With a decrease in stress, there is a transition to a Newtonian viscous deformation regime consistent with Coble grain boundary diffusion creep. At sufficiently low stresses, or in materials with finer grain sizes, there is a further transition to a grain size dependent interface controlled deformation regime. Analysis of the experimental data suggests strongly that superplastic flow in 3YTZ occurs by an interface controlled deformation mechanism.     

Stress Generation and Adhesion in Growing Oxide Scales

The experimental evidence for stress generation in growing oxide scales is briefly summarised, and the origin of these stresses is discussed. The limited experimental data related to oxide adhesion is discussed, and it is concluded that the adhesion between metal and oxide probably involves chemical interaction, and that the effects of impurities collecting at the interface are not easy to predict. It is emphasised however that the problem of adhesion at the metall oxide interface is complicated by the dynamic nature of the situation, so that it is necessary to postulate a growth mechanism which will allow contact between the oxide and the metal to be maintained. Finally, the problem of plastic flow in the oxide is considered, and it is suggested that some of the evidence which has been adduced to support the idea of large plastic flow is less than entirely convincing. Some of the phenomena may possibly be interpreted in terms of “stress-directed growth”.     

Effect of Oxide Growth Strain in Residual Stresses for the Deflection Test of Single Surface Oxidation of Alloys

Residual stresses developed in FeCrAlY and Ni₈₀Cr₂₀ alloys have been predicted considering growth strain and creep strain in oxide layer and creep strain in alloy or metal. Such stresses, a net compressive stress developed in oxide scales and a net tensile stress developed in alloy strip, produce deflection of a single surface oxidized specimen during high temperature isothermal oxidation. Stresses generated in these alloys and oxide scales were compared with creep deflections. Introducing oxide growth strain in the oxide scales increase the oxide stress value during the initial oxidation stage, during which creep analysis lacks prediction. Oxide stress reaches maximum value at certain oxidation time in the initial oxidation stage. After that oxidation time relaxation of oxide stress occurs considerably in later oxidation stage.     

TiAl金属间化合物反常应变速率效应的研究

采用系列温度及不同应变速率条件下的压缩试验研究TiAl,TiAl-V的塑性形变行为结果表明,在不同温度区间,Peierls—Nabarro机制,交滑移机制和蠕变为塑性形变的主要控制机制,TiAl-V合金在600—700K形变时出现反常应变速率效应,而且塑性应变量越大.反常效应越明显,利用位错交滑移的热激活特性理论对此反常效应进行初步解释,温度和应变速率对加工硬化指数的影响及不同塑性应变量对应变速率敏感性的影响在本文中也进行了探讨。