Preliminary evaluation of endogenous milk fluorophores as tracer molecules for curd syneresis

A front-face fluorescence spectroscopy probe was installed in the wall of a laboratory-scale cheese vat. Excitation and emission filters were chosen for the selective detection of vitamin A, tryptophan, and riboflavin fluorescence. The evolution of the fluorescence of each fluorophore during milk coagulation and syneresis was monitored to determine if they had the potential to act as intrinsic tracers of syneresis and also coagulation. The fluorescence profiles for 2 of the fluorophores during coagulation could be divided into 3 sections relating to enzymatic hydrolysis of κ-casein, aggregation of casein micelles, and crosslinking. A parameter relating to coagulation kinetics was derived from the tryptophan and riboflavin profiles but this was not possible for the vitamin A response. The study also indicated that tryptophan and riboflavin may act as tracer molecules for syneresis, but this was not shown for vitamin A. The evolution of tryptophan and riboflavin fluorescence during syneresis followed a first-order reaction and had strong relationships with curd moisture and whey total solids content (r = 0.86-0.96). Simple 1- and 2-parameter models were developed to predict curd moisture content, curd yield, and whey total solids using parameters derived from the sensor profiles (standard error of prediction = 0.0005-0.394%; R² = 0.963-0.999). The results of this study highlight the potential of tryptophan and riboflavin to act as intrinsic tracer molecules for noninvasive inline monitoring of milk coagulation and curd syneresis. Further work is required to validate these findings under a wider range of processing conditions.     

Effects of cutting intensity and stirring speed on syneresis and curd losses during cheese manufacture

Recombined whole milk was renneted under constant conditions of pH, temperature, and added calcium, and the gel was cut at a constant firmness. The effects of cutting and stirring on syneresis and curd losses to whey were investigated during cheese making using a factorial design with 3 cutting modes designed to provide 3 different cutting intensity levels (i.e., total cutting revolutions), 3 levels of stirring speed, and 3 replications. These cutting intensities and stirring speeds were selected to give a wide range of curd grain sizes and curd shattering, respectively. Both factors affected curd losses, and correct selection of these factors is important in the cheesemaking industry. Decreased cutting intensity and increased stirring speed significantly increased the losses of fines and fat from the curd to the whey. Cutting intensities and stirring speeds in this study did not show significant effects on curd moisture content over the course of syneresis. Levels of total solids, fines, and fat in whey were shown to change significantly during syneresis. It is believed that larger curd particles resulting from low cutting intensities coupled with faster stirring speeds resulted in a higher degree of curd shattering during stirring, which caused significant curd losses.     

Comparison between red-green-blue imaging and visible-near infrared reflectance as potential process analytical tools for monitoring syneresis

The current work focuses on the comparison of 2 on-line optical sensing systems; namely red-green-blue imaging and visible-near infrared reflectance, for monitoring syneresis during cheese manufacture. The experimental design consisted of 3 temperature treatments carried out in an 11-L cheese vat in triplicate. Both systems were shown to predict syneresis without significant differences in prediction accuracy. However, a single-wavelength near infrared model was the most parsimonious (standard error of prediction = 4.35 g/100 g) for predicting syneresis. This technique was also the simplest in terms of parameters in the model (standard error of prediction = 4.15 g/100 g with 2 parameters), when time after gel cutting and process parameters (temperature and cutting time) were included in the models. The study showed that either system could be employed to control syneresis in cheese manufacture and improve the control of moisture content in cheese.     

涤纶筒子纱染花成因及解决措施

讨论涤纶筒子纱染色色花的影响因素及其控制方案,并介绍色花的回修方法。     

Technical note: Improving modeling of coagulation,curd firming,and syneresis of sheep milk

The importance of milk coagulation properties for milk processing, cheese yield, and quality is widely recognized. The use of traditional coagulation traits presents several limitations for testing bovine milk and even more for sheep milk, due to its rapid coagulation and curd firming, and early syneresis of coagulum. The aim of this technical note is to test and improve model fitting for assessing coagulation, curd firming, and syneresis of sheep milk. Using milk samples from 87 Sarda ewes, we performed in duplicate lactodynamographic testing. On each of the 174 analyzed milk aliquots, using 180 observations from each aliquot (one every 15 s for 45 min after rennet addition), we compared 4 different curd firming models as a function of time (CF_t, mm) using a nonlinear procedure. The most accurate and informative results were observed using a modified 4-parameter model, structured as follows: ${\text{CF}}_t={\text{CF}}_{\text{P}}\times \left(1?{\text{e}}^{?{\text{k}}_{\text{CF}}\left({\text{RCT}}_{\text{eq}}\right)}\right)\times {\text{e}}^{{\text{k}}_{\text{SR}}\times \left({\text{t-RCT}}_{\text{eq}}\right)}$ where t is time, RCT_eq (min) is the gelation time, CF_P (mm) is the potential asymptotical CF at an infinite time, k_CF (%/min) is the curd firming rate constant, and k_SR (%/min) is the curd syneresis rate constant. To avoid nonconvergence and computational problems due to interrelations among the equation parameters, CF_P was preliminarily defined as a function of maximum observed curd firmness (CF_max, mm) recorded during the analysis. For this model, all the modeling equations of individual sheep milk aliquots were converging, with a negligible standard error of the estimates (coefficient of determination >0.99 for all individual sample equations). Repeatability of the modeled parameters was acceptable, also in the presence of curd syneresis during the lactodynamographic analysis.     

Breed of cow and herd productivity affect milk composition and modeling of coagulation,curd firming,and syneresis

Milk coagulation properties (MCP) have been widely investigated in the past using milk collected from different cattle breeds and herds. However, to our knowledge, no previous studies have assessed MCP in individual milk samples from several multi-breed herds characterized by either high or low milk productivity, thereby allowing the effects of herd and cow breed to be evaluated independently. Multi-breed herds (n = 41) were classified into 2 categories based on milk productivity (high vs. low), defined according to the average milk net energy yielded daily by lactating cows. Milk samples were taken from 1,508 cows of 6 different breeds: 3 specialized dairy (Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss, Jersey) and 3 dual-purpose (Simmental, Rendena, Alpine Grey) breeds, and analyzed in duplicate (3,016 tests) using 2 lactodynamographs to obtain 240 curd firming (CF) measurements over 60 min (1 every 15 s) for each duplicate. The 5 traditional single-point MCP (RCT, k₂₀, a₃₀, a₄₅, and a₆₀) were yielded directly by the instrument from the available CF measures. All 240 CF measures of each replicate were also used to estimate 4 individual equation parameters: RCT estimated according to curd firm change over time modeling (RCT_eq), asymptotic potential curd firmness (CF_P), curd firming instant rate constant (k_CF), and syneresis instant rate constant (k_SR) and 2 derived traits: maximum curd firmness achieved within 45 min (CF_max) and time at achievement of CF_max (t_max) by curvilinear regression using a nonlinear procedure. Results showed that the effect of herd-date on traditional and modeled MCP was modest, ranging from 6.1% of total variance for k₂₀ to 10.7% for RCT, whereas individual animal variance was the highest, ranging from 32.0% for t_max to 82.5% for RCT_eq. The repeatability of MCP was high (>80%) for all traits except those associated with the last part of the lactodynamographic curve (i.e., a₆₀, k_SR, k_CF, and t_max: 57 to 71%). Reproducibility, taking into account the effect of instrument, was equal to or slightly lower than repeatability. Milk samples collected in farms characterized by high productivity exhibited delayed coagulation (RCT_eq: 18.6 vs. 16.3 min) but greater potential curd firmness (CF_P: 76.8 vs. 71.9 mm) compared with milk samples collected from low-productivity herds. Parity and days in milk influenced almost all MCP. Large differences in all MCP traits were observed among breeds, both between specialized and dual-purpose breeds and within these 2 groups of breeds, even after adjusting for milk quality and yield. Milk quality and MCP of samples from Jersey cows, and coagulation time of samples from Rendena cows were better than in milk from Holstein-Friesian cows, and intermediate results were found with the other breeds of Alpine origin. The results of this study, taking into account the intrinsic limitation of this technique, show that the effects of breed on traditional and modeled MCP are much greater than the effects of herd productivity class, parity, and DIM. Moreover, the variance in individual animals is much greater than the variance in individual herds within herd productivity class. It seems that improvement in MCP depends more on genetics (e.g., breed, selection) than on environmental and management factors.     

Evaluation of on-line optical sensing techniques for monitoring curd moisture content and solids in whey during syneresis

This study focuses on the prediction ability of several optical sensing techniques, namely single wavelength (980 nm), broad spectrum and colour coordinates, for monitoring key syneresis indices during cheese manufacture. Three series of trials were undertaken in which milk gel was cut and stirred in an 11 L cheese vat. Three full factorial designs were employed with experimental variables consisting of: (i) three curd stirring speeds and three cutting programmes; (ii) three milk fat levels and three gel firmness levels at cutting; and (iii) two milk protein levels and three fat:protein ratio levels in the respective experiments. Models developed using the range of techniques investigated demonstrated that an on-line visible–NIR sensor was able to predict curd moisture content. However, the broad spectrum technique was the only one capable of predicting whey solids. The findings show that on-line sensing techniques can significantly improve the control of curd moisture content in cheese factories, across the range of experimental variables used in this study.     

嗜酸乳杆菌发酵生产低脂干酪凝乳工艺的优化

以脱脂乳为原料,采用嗜酸乳杆菌发酵进行预酸化,对其生产的低脂干酪凝乳工艺条件进行了研究。实验选取凝乳pH、氯化钙添加量、凝乳酶添加量、凝乳温度4个影响因素,以干酪产率、乳清中非脂乳固体物质残留量、嗜酸乳杆菌活菌数为指标,采用L₉（3⁴）正交实验进行优化。结果表明,凝乳的最佳工艺参数为凝乳pH6.0,氯化钙添加量0.02%（w/w）,凝乳酶添加量0.01%（w/w,酶活20000u/g）,凝乳温度35℃,以此条件生产的低脂干酪脂肪含量小于5%,干酪产率29.41%,乳清中非脂乳固体物质残留量5.66%,嗜酸乳杆菌活菌数在10⁹cfu/mL以上。     

The potential for carbon dioxide formation during ripening of acid curd cheese

Inspired by recent reports on high concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of ripening chambers used in acid curd cheese production, small-scale experiments were performed to systematically investigate sources of CO₂ formation. In a closed system with a ratio of cheese mass to air volume close to that in industrial scale, up to approximately 16% (v/v) CO₂ were observed within 3 d of maturation at 24 °C. Without addition of ripening salts (CaCO₃, NaHCO₃) the initial carbon dioxide formation was delayed, but maximum CO₂ levels were still much higher than admissible workplace concentrations. Control experiments with quarg, which was pasteurized for yeast inactivation, revealed that growth and activity of yeasts has to be considered as the most important source for carbon dioxide formation. The results of the study strongly point on the necessity of preventive measures for ensuring the safety of employees.     

一种测定羊绒颜色纯度的计算机视觉系统

传统测定羊绒纯度的手工方法受主观因素影响,精度和速度不能满足生产需要.文章提出了一种由纤维分匀器、图像获取系统和图像处理计算机组成的、能客观测定羊绒颜色纯度的计算机视觉系统.由实验结果的对比可以看出本系统的研究成果是可行的.文章还对系统采用的检测样品的预处理、羊绒中杂色毛的识别与评定算法等关键技术进行了重点介绍.     

Starch addition in renneted milk gels: Partitioning between curd and whey and effect on curd syneresis and gel microstructure

Milk gels were made by renneting and acidifying skim milk containing 5 different starches, and then compressed by centrifugation to express whey and simulate curd syneresis during the manufacture of low-fat cheese. A series of 17 starches were examined, with 5 starches being selected for in-depth analysis: a modified waxy corn starch (WC), a waxy rice starch (WR), an instant tapioca starch (IT), a modified tapioca starch (MT), and dextrin (DX). Milks containing WC, WR, and DX were given a 72°C heat treatment, whereas those containing IT and MT had a 30-min treatment at 66°C that matched their optimum gelatinization treatments. Curd yields were calculated by weight, estimated starch content in whey was measured gravimetrically by alcohol precipitation, and starch retention in curd was calculated. Curd yields were 13.1% for the control milk (no added starch) and 18.4, 20.7, 21.5, 23.5, and 13.2% for the gels containing starches WC, WR, IT, MT, and DX, respectively. Estimated starch retentions in the curd were, respectively, 71, 90, 90, 21, and 1%. Laser scanning confocal microscopy was used to determine the location of the starches in the curd and their interaction with the protein matrix. Waxy corn, WR, and IT starches have potential to improve texture of low-fat cheese because they had high retention in the curd and they generated interruptions in the protein matrix network that may have helped limit extensive protein-protein interactions. Modified tapioca starch interfered with formation of the protein structure of the curd and produced a soft noncohesive gel, even though most (79%) of the MT starch was lost in the whey. Few distinct starch particles were present in the MT curd network. Dextrin was not retained in the curd and did not disrupt the protein network, making it unsuitable for use in low-fat cheese.     

干酪及其加工和质量控制新技术

研讨了国外奶酪及其发展、奶酪的品种、分类和质量控制方法，进一步介绍了近年研发出的新型奶酪的特点和加工方法。同时还研讨了乳清及其生物活性物的最新研究进展，以利于充分利用乳清资源和减少排除的乳清对环境的污染。另外，还介绍了奶酪加工新技术和凝乳酶的新型代用酶的种类、特性。     

凝乳工艺对功能性低脂干酪中活菌数的影响

活菌数是功能性低脂干酪的重要指标,本文就凝乳工艺过程对功能性低脂干酪活菌数的影响进行了研究,旨在通过控制凝乳工艺过程参数而使干酪最终活菌数达到功能性食品的标准。通过对单因素实验和正交实验研究与分析,结果表明:凝乳酶添加量0.01%,凝乳温度35℃,凝乳pH值为6.2,CaCl2添加量0.03%,干酪活菌数均能达到107mL-1,符合功能性低脂干酪的活菌数要求,能够获得较为理想的实验效果。     

The color of Brevibacterium linens depends on the yeast used for cheese deacidification

The color of smear cheeses (Muenster) is traditionally thought to be due to the bacterial flora, e.g., Brevibacterium linens. This study was carried out to evaluate indirect effects of yeast on the color of B. linens. A 60% cheese medium was desacidified with Debaryomyces hansenii or Kluyveromyces marxianus until pH 5.8 was reached. After inactivation of the yeast and addition of agar-NaCl, B. linens was inoculated on the medium surface and incubated at 12°C from d 2 to 28. For each bacterial biofilm, color was evaluated by L*C*h° (brightness, chroma, hue angle) spectrocolorimetry. After d 14 (D. hansenii deacidification) and d 21 (K. marxianus desacidification), the color level (as a function of all 3 factors) of B. linens biofilms became maximal and remained so until d 28. Debaryomyces hansenii 304 (LGMPA) was less efficient for deacidification than K. marxianus Laf5. However, color intensity (function of chroma only) was higher when D. hansenii was used. The yeast used had an effect on the composition of the cheese medium in relation to production and consumption of metabolites during deacidification. The results concerning color are discussed with respect to this cheese medium composition.     

计算机测色配色技术在皮革工业中的应用探讨

详细论述了颜色科学及配色理论 ,介绍了目前计算机技术在颜色测色配色方面的应用 ,着重阐述了现代颜色测量仪器与计算机技术相结合的计算机测色配色技术理论及其在皮革工业中的应用。并结合皮革生产特点 ,对其在皮革工业中应用的局限性及其解决办法进行了探讨     

Measurement of meat color using a computer vision system

The limits of the colorimeter and a technique of image analysis in evaluating the color of beef, pork, and chicken were investigated. The Minolta CR-400 colorimeter and a computer vision system (CVS) were employed to measure colorimetric characteristics. To evaluate the chromatic fidelity of the image of the sample displayed on the monitor, a similarity test was carried out using a trained panel. The panelists found the digital images of the samples visualized on the monitor very similar to the actual ones (P < 0.001). During the first similarity test the panelists observed at the same time both the actual meat sample and the sample image on the monitor in order to evaluate the similarity between them (test A). Moreover, the panelists were asked to evaluate the similarity between two colors, both generated by the software Adobe Photoshop CS3 one using the L*, a* and b* values read by the colorimeter and the other obtained using the CVS (test B); which of the two colors was more similar to the sample visualized on the monitor was also assessed (test C). The panelists found the digital images very similar to the actual samples (P < 0.001). As to the similarity (test B) between the CVS- and colorimeter-based colors the panelists found significant differences between them (P < 0.001). Test C showed that the color of the sample on the monitor was more similar to the CVS generated color than to the colorimeter generated color. The differences between the values of the L*, a*, b*, hue angle and chroma obtained with the CVS and the colorimeter were statistically significant (P < 0.05–0.001). These results showed that the colorimeter did not generate coordinates corresponding to the true color of meat. Instead, the CVS method seemed to give valid measurements that reproduced a color very similar to the real one.     

Relationships between cheese-processing conditions and curd and cheese properties to improve the yield of Idiazabal cheese made in small artisan dairies: A multivariate approach

Very diverse cutting and cooking intensity processes are currently used in small artisan dairies to manufacture Idiazabal cheese. The combination of the technical settings used during cheese manufacturing is known to affect cheese composition and yield, as well as whey losses. However, the information regarding the effect on microstructure and texture of cheese is scarce, especially in commercial productions. Therefore, the effect of moderate- and high-intensity cutting and cooking processes on whey losses, curd-grain characteristics, microstructure and cheese properties, and yield were analyzed. Three trials were monitored in each of 2 different small dairies during the cheesemaking of Idiazabal cheese, which is a semihard cheese made from raw sheep milk. The role and know-how of the cheesemakers are crucial in these productions because they determine the cutting point and handle semi-automatic vats. The 2 dairies studied used the following settings: dairy A used moderate-intensity cutting and cooking conditions, and dairy B used high-intensity cutting and cooking settings. Multiple relationships between cheese-processing conditions and curd, whey, and cheese properties as well as yield were obtained from a partial least square regression analysis. An increased amount of fat and casein losses were generated due to a combination of an excessively firm gel at cutting point together with high-intensity cutting and cooking processes. The microstructural analysis revealed that the porosity of the protein matrix of curd grains after cooking and cheese after pressing was the main feature affected, developing a less porous structure with a more intense process. Moderate-intensity cutting and cooking processes were associated with a higher cheese yield, regardless of the longer pressing process applied. No significant differences were observed in cheese composition. After 1 mo of ripening, however, the cheese was more brittle and adhesive when the high-intensity cutting and cooking process was applied. This could be associated with the composition, characteristics, and size distribution of curd grains due to differences in the compaction degree during pressing. These results could help to modify specific conditions used in cheesemaking, especially improving the process in those small dairies where the role of the cheesemaker is crucial.     

Genome-wide association study for cheese yield and curd nutrient recovery in dairy cows

Cheese production and consumption are increasing in many countries worldwide. As a result, interest has increased in strategies for genetic selection of individuals for technological traits of milk related to cheese yield (CY) in dairy cattle breeding. However, little is known about the genetic background of a cow's ability to produce cheese. Recently, a relatively large panel (1,264 cows) of different measures of individual cow CY and milk nutrient and energy recoveries in the cheese (REC) became available. Genetic analyses showed considerable variation for CY and for aptitude to retain high proportions of fat, protein, and water in the coagulum. For the dairy industry, these characteristics are of major economic importance. Nevertheless, use of this knowledge in dairy breeding is hampered by high costs, intense labor requirement, and lack of appropriate technology. However, in the era of genomics, new possibilities are available for animal breeding and genetic improvement. For example, identification of genomic regions involved in cow CY might provide potential for marker-assisted selection. The objective of this study was to perform genome-wide association studies on different CY and REC measures. Milk and DNA samples from 1,152 Italian Brown Swiss cows were used. Three CY traits expressing the weight (wt) of fresh curd (%CY_CURD), curd solids (%CY_SOLIDS), and curd moisture (%CY_WATER) as a percentage of weight of milk processed, and 4 REC (REC_FAT, REC_PROTEIN, REC_SOLIDS, and REC_ENERGY, calculated as the % ratio between the nutrient in curd and the corresponding nutrient in processed milk) were analyzed. Animals were genotyped with the Illumina BovineSNP50 Bead Chip v.2. Single marker regressions were fitted using the GenABEL R package (genome-wide association using mixed model and regression–genomic control). In total, 103 significant associations (88 single nucleotide polymorphisms) were identified in 10 chromosomes (2, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14, 18, 19, 27, 28). For REC_FAT and REC_PROTEIN, high significance peaks were identified in Bos taurus autosome (BTA) 6 and BTA11, respectively. Marker ARS-BFGL-NGS-104610 (～104.3 Mbp) was highly associated with REC_PROTEIN and Hapmap52348-rs29024684 (～87.4 Mbp), closely located to the casein genes on BTA6, with REC_FAT. Genomic regions identified may enhance marker-assisted selection in bovine cheese breeding beyond the use of protein (casein) and fat contents, whereas new knowledge will help to unravel the genomic background of a cow's ability for cheese production.     

Compositional and physical properties of yogurts manufactured from milk and whey cheese concentrated by ultrafiltration

Yogurts made with 80% milk retentate (MR) [Volume Reduction Factor (VRF) = 1.5] and 20% cheese whey retentate (WR; VRF = 8.0) (yogurt 1) and yogurts made with 100% MR through ultrafiltration have been evaluated as to flow, texture profile analysis (TPA) and syneresis index. As with MR and WR, their physico‐chemical composition was also determined. The yogurt to which WR had been added showed; less apparent viscosity and greater tixotrophya; less firmness and adhesiveness and greater cohesiveness; higher syneresis index, less protein and mineral content, and greater lipid content in comparison with the yogurt made only with MR.     

粘胶纤维筒子染色前处理工艺改进

粘胶纤维筒子染色,传统的前处理工艺用纯碱、渗透剂进行煮练处理,煮练后中和、水洗待染色;新前处理工艺只用90℃水,30 min煮练后待染色。新工艺和传统工艺相比节约蒸汽、水、电、助剂、时间,共计费用1 914元/t纱,节约时间70 min;新工艺前处理白度略低于传统前处理工艺,得色深度、色牢度和传统前处理工艺相当。