Technology exploration and forecasting of biofuels and biohydrogen energy from patent analysis

The status and activity of technological development in the field of biofuel and biohydrogen energy from the year 2000–2011 were investigated utilizing patent bibliometric analysis. Based on the reports, the current status indicates that the key technologies for biofuel energy have reached technological maturity in the United States. However, the principal or predominant technologies for biohydrogen energy need a great deal of work to accelerate the development of biohydrogen technology. In addition, three important subjects were found from citation techniques, which are related to biodiesel fuel, biological fuel cell, and the biohydrogen. These patents described that the focus of key techniques of energy production should be established towards low energy demand technologies, and biohydrogen was found to be a potential candidate of the future. Finally, this proposed model can be applied to all high-technology cases, and particularly to green energy field.     

A patent analysis on advanced biohydrogen technology development and commercialisation: Scope and competitiveness

The need of developing renewable energy to reduce the impact on the global environment and climate change of the increasing industrial development has fostered the use of biological processes to produce biofuel from biohydrogen. The present work made a patent analysis of advanced hydrogen production techniques comparing it with similar prior art in China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the European Union and the United States (U.S.) The aims were to find the scope, competitiveness of prior art, as well as the technology trend on biohydrogen production methods. The patents value was assessed its geographic scope and competitiveness indicators such as green image, low cost, energy efficiency and equipment design. It was found that most of the hydrogen production methods and associated technologies are developed by academic institutions, however their patents are reduced to a local level, and few are patented at international level, which reduces their competitiveness. The China (P.R.C.) is the biggest patent contributor worldwide in terms of hydrogen production methods by academic institutions. Japan is a huge patent contributor, in terms of methods aiming rear-end products application of hydrogen by private companies. The biggest amount of prior art found that the most popular methods of pre-treatment and dark fermentation produced coincide with the time of energetic crisis and the green movement to find alternative fuels. Finally, patent analysis of this study can help to discern the current technology trend and to develop the next generation of biohydrogen processes and associated technologies.     

Charting the evolution of biohydrogen production technology through a patent analysis

This study models the evolution of technologies for hydrogen production from the fermentation of biomass. We used a patent-clustering method to construct a technology network based on the mutual citation relationships between representative technology patents. Subsequently, we established an approximate matrix by analyzing the density of this citation network and identified the core technology cluster. We evaluated 2125 US patents from 2012 related to fermentative hydrogen production from biomass and divided the patents into four clusters according to their main technological areas. The largest cluster featured “the methods and systems that process useful gas by using waste and wastewater as feedstock and by enhancing biological (e.g., aerobic and anaerobic) processes,” indicating that this technology area currently represents the mainstream technology for such hydrogen production.     

Technology forecasting and patent strategy of hydrogen energy and fuel cell technologies

This study presents the technological S-curves that integrates the Bibliometric and patent analysis into the Logistic growth curve model for hydrogen energy and fuel cell technologies and identifies the optimal patent strategy for the fuel cell industry, including PEMFC, SOFC, and DMFC/DAFC. Empirical analysis is via an expert survey and Co-word analysis using the United States Patent and Trademark Office database to obtain useful data. Analytical results demonstrate that the S-curves is a highly effective means of quantifying how technology forecasting of cumulative publication patent number. Analytical results also indicate that technologies for generating and storing hydrogen have not yet reached technological maturity; thus, additional R&D funding is needed to accelerate the development of hydrogen technology. Conversely, fuel cell technologies have reached technological maturity, and related patent strategies include freedom to operate, licensing, and niche inventions. The proposed model can be applied to all high-technology cases, and particularly to new clean technologies. The study concludes by outlining the limitations of the proposed model and directions for further research.     

Examining the trends of technological development in hydrogen energy using patent co-word map analysis

Hydrogen fuel is a zero CO₂ emission fuel which uses in electrochemical cells, or internal combustion engines, to power vehicles and electric devices. It is also can potentially be mass-produced for various applications and be used in propulsion of spacecraft with safely high pressure storage. Therefore, it is an interesting subject to identify the technological trends of hydrogen energy. This study suggests a patent co-word map analysis (PCMA) to examine the trends of technological development in the area of hydrogen energy. The PCMA provides a systematic procedure to demonstrate the overall relationship among patents and produces the important technological insights regarding hydrogen energy. The results of analysis firstly indicate that the technological trends of worldwide hydrogen energy focus on the converting and application of hydrogen. Furthermore, critical technologies obtained from three patent sub-maps can be identified as the production, storage and conversion for hydrogen energy. Finally, hydrogen application is taken for the key factor in sustainable energy research works to improve the use for hydrogen.     

Commercial application scenario using patent analysis: Fermentative hydrogen production from biomass

The main purpose of this study is to use patent analysis to investigate scenarios for future commercial applications of dark fermentation or anaerobic fermentation using biomass or organic matter as feedstock materials. The first step in this study includes a patent search procedure and patent content interpretation, in which 29 technology patents were identified from the US patent database and divided into five groups in accordance with the scope of their technical applications. The following five scenarios of commercial applications of biomass fermentation for hydrogen production were established through a combination of group applications: screening and cultivation of hydrogen-producing bacteria, biomass waste sources, biomass energization application, value enhancement of waste or wastewater treatment systems, and the application of a multi-functional hydrogen production system integrated with other technologies.     

Application of modern approaches to the synthesis of biohydrogen from organic waste

Hydrogen production with the use of biological processes and renewable feedstock may be considered an economical and sustainable alternative fuel. The high calorific value and zero emission in the production of biohydrogen make it the best possible source for energy security and environmental sustainability. Solar energy, microorganisms, and feedstock such as organic waste and lignocellulosic biomasses of different feedstock are the only requirements of biohydrogen production along with specific environmental conditions for the growth of microorganisms. Hydrogen is also named as ‘fuel of the future’. This study presents different pathways of biohydrogen production. Because of breakthroughs in R&D, biohydrogen has been elevated to the status of a viable biofuel for the future. However, significant problems such as the cost of preprocessing, oxygen-hypersensitive enzymes, a lack of uniform light illumination for photobiological processes, and other expenses requiring intensification process limits are faced throughout the biohydrogen production process. Despite concerns regarding nanoparticle (NP) toxicity at higher concentrations, proper NP concentrations may improve hydrogen production dramatically by dissolving the substrates for bacterial hydrogen transformation. The data-driven Machine Learning (ML) model allows for quick response approximation for fermentative biohydrogen production while accounting for non-linear interactions between input variables. Scaling up biohydrogen production for future commercial-scale applications requires combining cost-benefit evaluations and life cycle effects with machine learning.     

Technology life cycle and commercialization readiness of hydrogen production technology using patent analysis

Hydrogen is a promising energy carrier with the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and provide a stable energy supply; however, economic feasibility and supply stability limit its use. Hydrogen production technology (HPT) may be the key to overcoming these. Here, we explore HPT life cycle and strength characteristics to assess commercialization readiness using diverse analyses such as patents. Our findings show that HPT has matured and strengthened its competitiveness. However—despite the maturity—many challenges are required for commercialization success: the factor that might bridge this gap is securing price competitiveness. This study highlights the technological competitiveness of electrolysis has overtaken that of reforming and gasification. However, electrolysis has yet to achieve successful commercialization since it does not have appropriate price competitiveness. Therefore we argue for the immediate need to develop various technological methods—such as improved systems with cost-effective electrocatalysts—should be met for large-scale electrolysis commercialization.     

Energy analysis of in-series biohydrogen and methane production from organic wastes

Biohydrogen production has been coupled in some cases to other energy production technologies in order to overcome its modest energy gains. Anaerobic digestion, when used for methane recovery, has long been regarded as an energy recovery technology. We determined the energy potential from the coupling of either semi-continuous or batch hydrogen lab-scale bioreactors to a methanogenic stage. All processes were performed in solid substrate fermentation mode using the organic fraction of municipal solid wastes as first fed.     

Development and environmental impact of hydrogen supply chain in Japan: Assessment by the CGE-LCA method in Japan with a discussion of the importance of biohydrogen

Hydrogen is an attractive and clean source of energy with a high energy content and environmentally friendly production using green power. Hydrogen is therefore considered to be one of the future alternatives to fossil fuels that can limit the damage done by climate change. A dynamic GTAP model with LCA method is utilized herein in this investigation to forecast the development of the hydrogen supply chain and CO₂ emissions in Japan. The supply chain incorporates six hydrogen-related industries – biohydrogen, steam reforming, electrolysis, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCV), hydrogen fuel cells (HFC), and hydrogen fueling stations.     

Performance of a hydrogen refueling station in the early years of commercial fuel cell vehicle deployment

Since 2003, the National Fuel Cell Research Center at the University of California, Irvine (UCI) has operated the first U.S. publicly accessible hydrogen refueling station (HRS). During this period, the UCI HRS supported all manufacturers in the early, pre-commercialization years of the fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). This paper describes and analyzes the performance of the UCI HRS during the first five years of FCEV commercialization, over which time the station has dispensed the most hydrogen daily in the California network. The station performance is compared to aggregate data published by NREL for all U.S. HRSs. Using the Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model, typical daily refueling profiles are analyzed to determine the effect on HRS design. The results show different daily refueling profiles could substantially affect HRS design and ultimately the cost of hydrogen. While technical issues have been reduced, the compressor, dispenser, and fueling rate are areas for improvement.     

Wind energy and the hydrogen economy—review of the technology

The hydrogen economy is an inevitable energy system of the future where the available energy sources (preferably the renewable ones) will be used to generate hydrogen and electricity as energy carriers, which are capable of satisfying all the energy needs of human civilization. The transition to a hydrogen economy may have already begun. This paper presents a review of hydrogen energy technologies, namely technologies for hydrogen production, storage, distribution, and utilization. Possibilities for utilization of wind energy to generate hydrogen are discussed in parallel with possibilities to use hydrogen to enhance wind power competitiveness.     

Photovoltaic technology development: A perspective from patent growth analysis

To catch up with the need for utilizing sunlight as an alternative energy source, photovoltaic technology has developed considerably fast in the last thirty-plus years. This article examines this technology's development from the perspective of patent growth analysis. Patent data are analyzed to find the photovoltaic technology growth trajectory. Mainly affected by environmental factors such as the price of crude oil, we observe two long-term waves of development trajectories. The current wave is found to be in the later growth stage of its life-cycle. After examining the correlation between technology development and crude oil price, a significant correlation is found between crude oil price's growth rate and photovoltaic patents' growth rate. As far as the market is concerned, it lags 10 years behind photovoltaic technology development.With the assistance of keyword co-occurrence analysis, one can classify photovoltaic patents into five groups, with each carrying a characteristic of competing photovoltaic technologies: Emerging PV, CdTe, CIS/CIGS, Group III–V, and Silicon technologies. This research observes the patent growth trajectories for each technology. Among these competing technologies, Emerging PV, Group III–V, and Silicon are still growing strong, while CdTe and CIS/CIGS are in the mature stage. This result hints at a paradigm shift for photovoltaic technology development. Sustainability is added to the technical regime in addition to efficiency, cost, and reliability.A policy other than the existing mechanism such as a feed-in tariff is suggested to stabilize photovoltaic technology development through the means of removing oil price fluctuations. Finally, several strategic issues are discussed from the technology development community's point of view.     

Kinetic analysis of biohydrogen production from anaerobically treated POME in bioreactor under optimized condition

In this study, the biohydrogen production from POME was performed under mesophillic conditions by mixed culture in a 2 L bioreactor using the optimized conditions obtained previously. The effect of controlling pH initially or throughout the fermentation was also examined. The fermentation performance was monitored by comparing P, R_m, λ, and P_s in both systems. In this present study, the reactor system showed higher hydrogen production potential values with the utilization of pH control. Hydrogen production potential was increased two folds when the reactor system was equipped with pH control rather than just fixed the initial pH at 5.8. The biohydrogen production under controlled pH occurred after 7 h fermentation resulting in maximum Ps and Rm of 1.32 L/L POME and 0.144 L/L.h, respectively.     

Continuous biohydrogen production by a degenerated strain of Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824

Degenerated strains of Clostridium acetobutylicum lack the ability to produce solvents and to sporulate, allowing the continuous production of hydrogen and organic acids. A degenerated strain of Clostridium acetobutylicum was obtained through successive batch cultures. Its kinetic characterization showed a similar specific growth rate than the wild type (0.25 h^?1), a higher butyric acid production of 6.8 g·L^?1 and no solvents production. A steady state was reached in a continuous culture at a dilution rate of 0.1 h^?1, with a constant hydrogen production of 507 mL·h^?1, corresponding to a volumetric rate of 6.10 L·L^?1 d^?1, and a yield of 2.39 mol of H₂ per mole of glucose which represents 60% of the theoretical maximum yield. These results suggest that the degeneration is an interesting alternative for hydrogen production with this strain, obtaining a high hydrogen production in a continuous culture with cells in a permanent acidogenic state.     

Kinetic analysis of biohydrogen production from complex dairy wastewater under optimized condition

Present work describes a kinetic analysis of various aspects of biohydrogen production in batch test using optimized conditions obtained previously. Monod model and Logistic equation have been used to find growth kinetic parameters in batch test under uncontrolled pH. The values of μ_m, K_s, and X_m were 0.64 h⁻¹, 15.89 g-COD L⁻¹, and 7.26 g-VSS L⁻¹, respectively. Modified Leudeking-Piret and Michaelis–Menten equation corroborates a flux of energy to hydrogen production pathway and energy sufficiency in the system. Modified Gompertz equation illustrates that the overall rate and hydrogen yield at 15 g-COD L⁻¹ was higher compared to a dark fermentation of other wastewaters. Besides, Andrew's equation also suggests that since the higher value of K_I (19.95 g-COD L⁻¹), k (255 mL h⁻¹ L⁻¹) was not inhibited at high S. The experimental results implied that the entire products during the fermentation process were growth and substrate degradation associated. The result also confirms that the acetate and butyrate were substantially used for hydrogen production in acidogenic metabolism under uncontrolled pH.     

Use of technology mapping in identification of fuel cell sub-technologies

Technology Identification involves developing a list of technologies which are, or may be, incorporated into products or processes. After reviewing Technology Assessment, Technology Strategy, Management of Technology and New Product Development in literature, four methods of Technology Identification are investigated: Value Chain of Technologies, Process-based Approach, Quality Function Deployment and Technology Mapping. A model facilitating decision making process is then proposed by which the most appropriate method to be employed is identified. The proposed model is examined in specific case of fuel cell technologies while preparing the Fuel cell Development Strategic Plan of Iran.¹ Specifically, by using Delphi technique based on expert opinion, a map of 198 fuel cell sub-technologies is devised and five technology categories are identified: Stack Component, Fuel Processing, Sub-systems, Simulation and Design and Interface Technologies for Transportation, Stationary and Portable Applications. Fitness of selected method (Technology Mapping) was attested by experts who were involved in the process of identification; although the validity and reliability of proposed model rest to be tested by using it in other cases in different contexts.     

Quantitative analysis of a successful public hydrogen station

Reliable hydrogen fueling stations will be required for the successful commercialization of fuel cell vehicles. An evolving hydrogen fueling station has been in operation in Irvine, California since 2003, with nearly five years of operation in its current form. The usage of the station has increased from just 1000 kg dispensed in 2007 to over 8000 kg dispensed in 2011 due to greater numbers of fuel cell vehicles in the area. The station regularly operates beyond its design capacity of 25 kg/day and enables fuel cell vehicles to exceed future carbon reduction goals today. Current limitations include a cost of hydrogen of $15 per kg, net electrical consumption of 5 kWh per kg dispensed, and a need for faster back-to-back vehicle refueling.     

The importance of fuel variability on the performance of solid oxide cells operating on H2/CO2 mixtures from biohydrogen processes

Biologically produced mixtures of H₂ and CO₂ (biohydrogen) from processes such as dark fermentation or photo-fermentation are versatile feedstocks which can potentially be utilised in solid oxide cell (SOC) devices. In this work, solid oxide electrolysis of biohydrogen has been investigated for the first time and is compared directly with fuel cell mode utilisation. The performance and fuel processing of SOCs utilising biohydrogen have been characterised in greater detail than has been achieved previously through the use of experiments which combine electrochemical techniques with quadrupole mass spectrometry (QMS). The effects of fuel variability on SOC overpotentials and outputs have been established and it is shown that cell performance is not significantly affected provided the fuel composition stays within 40–60 vol% H₂. QMS measurements indicate H₂O and CO production takes place in-situ via the reverse water-gas shift (RWGS) reaction. Electrical power production in fuel cell mode is predominantly through H₂ oxidation, whilst CO is converted in the WGS reaction to regenerate CO₂ but does not contribute to electrical power production. In electrolysis mode, CO is produced simultaneously through electrochemical CO₂ reduction and the RWGS reaction; H₂O is electrochemically reduced to regenerate H₂.     

Combined effects of temperature and pH on biohydrogen production by anaerobic digested sludge

A full factorial design was conducted to investigate the combined effects of temperatures and initial pH on fermentative hydrogen production by mixed cultures in batch tests. The experimental results showed that the modified Logistic model can be used to describe the progress of cumulative hydrogen production in the batch tests of this study. The modified Ratkowsky model can be used to describe the combined effects of the temperatures and initial pH on the substrate degradation efficiency, hydrogen yield and average hydrogen production rate. The temperatures and initial pH had interactive impact on fermentative hydrogen production. The maximum substrate degradation efficiency, the maximum hydrogen yield and the maximum average hydrogen production rate was predicted at the temperature of 37.8 °C and the initial pH of 7.1, 37.4 °C and 6.9, and 38.2 °C and 7.2, respectively. In general, the optimal temperature for the fermentative hydrogen production was around 37.8 °C and the optimal initial pH for the fermentative hydrogen production was around 7.1.