GH4133镍基高温合金激光冲击强化研究

为了研究激光冲击强化技术在高温部件上应用的可行性,研究了GH4133镍基高温合金激光冲击后强化效果的热稳定性。分别采用激光冲击强化、激光冲击强化加保温的方法进行处理,并利用SEM、显微硬度和残余应力的测试方法分析了温度对激光冲击处理后GH4133材料微观组织和力学性能的影响。通过冲击强化后涡轮叶片的高温疲劳试验验证强化效果的热稳定性,并分析其高温下的强化机制。结果表明,激光冲击强化可以在GH4133镍基高温合金表层产生较大残余压应力,细化晶粒;并且在温度作用下,激光冲击GH4133合金形成的细化晶粒在析出相的钉扎作用下具有较好的热稳定性。另一方面残余压应力的应力集中减小,分布均匀。两者的共同作用提高了强化效果的热稳定性,有利于疲劳性能的提高。     

Stray grain formation in the seed region of single-crystal turbine blades

Seed crystals are frequently used to provide an off-axial 〈001〉 crystallographic orientation to investment cast single-crystal, nickel-based superalloy turbine blades. However, stray grain defects can form during the melt-back of the seed crystal, requiring the use of a helical grain selector between the seed and the blade to remove them. Using meso-scale numerical simulations, the formation mechanisms of these stray grain defects have been investigated. Also investigated was the influence of the seed’s crystallographic orientation relative to blade axis. The model is first validated by comparison to experimental observations and then by its application to a range of casting situations. The results show that initiation of these defects is difficult to avoid. Instead, the impact of stray grains should be controlled during their growth. For more information, contact P.D. Lee, Department of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2BP, U.K.; e-mail p.d.lee@imperial.ac.uk.     

Temperature evolution and grain defect formation during single crystal solidification of a blade cluster

In order to investigate the asymmetry of thermal conditions during directional solidification, the temperature evolution and correspondingly developed undercooling in a simplified single crystal blade cluster were numerically simulated. Simulation results demonstrate that the temperature distribution at the blade platforms is obviously asymmetrical. On the outside of the blade which directly faces the heating element, the liquidus (TL) isotherms progress relatively smoothly. On the inside of the blades facing the central rod, however, the TL-isotherms are in concave shape and the slope goes upwards to the platform extremities. The average undercooling extent ?T and undercooling time ?t at the inside are much higher than those at the outside. It was then predicted that the inside platform extremities have significantly higher probabilities of stray grain formation compared to the outside ones. A corresponding experiment was carried out and the metallographic examination exhibited the same side- and height-dependence of stray grain formation in the blades as predicted. On the inside of the blades, all platforms are occupied by stray grains, while the platforms on the outside are nearly stray grain free. The simulation result agrees very well with the experimental observation.     

Effects of Substrate Crystallographic Orientations on Microstructure in Laser Surface-Melted Single-Crystal Superalloy:Theoretical Analysis

A geometric analysis technique for crystal growth and microstructure development in single-crystal welds had been previously developed.And the effect of welding conditions on the tendency of stray grains formation during solidification was researched.In the present work,these analytical methods were further extended.Combined with an original vectorization method,a 3D Rosenthal solution was used to determine thermal conditions of the welds.Afterward,the dendrite growth orientation,the dendrite growth velocity and the thermal gradient along dendrite direction were calculated and lively plotted.Finally,the tendency of stray grains formation in the solidification front was forecasted and its distribution was presented with a 3D plot.The results indicate that substrate orientation has some impacts on the crystal growth pattern,dendrite growth velocity,distribution of thermal gradient and stray grain.Based on the research methods proposed in this work,any substrate crystallographic orientation can be studied,and predicted stray grains distribution can be visualized.     

Effects of process variables on interfacial quality of laser cladding on aeroengine blade material GH4133

Consecutive layer of a cobalt alloy, stelliteX-40, were deposited onto a GH4133 superalloy plate. The microstructure and mechanical properties of laser cladding were examined. An inappropriate combination of laser power, scanning velocity or pre-placed powder height can result in the formation of incomplete fusion interface between the cladding layer and substrate, or reheat cracking along the coarse grain boundary in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) after ageing treatment. The SEM and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) show the absence of precipitate particles within the reheating crack with similar average compositions for the crack and the substrate. The plastic deformation due to residual thermal stress induced by thermal cycle of laser cladding process is concentrated on the coarse grain boundaries within the HAZ as grains are strengthened by precipitating particles during the aging process. This concentrated plastic deformation is mainly responsible for reheat cracking. The laser cladding layer with integrated melt interface and without reheat cracking can be obtained by optimizing laser power, scanning velocity and powder thickness. The experimental results of microhardness show the homogenous property distribution within the material after the ageing treatment.     

高温合金单晶叶片定向凝固过程的宏微观数值模拟

基于有限元和Panda热动力学数据库建立了单晶叶片真空熔模铸造定向凝固过程的数理模型,对不同工艺下单晶叶片试样凝固过程中的温度场、糊状区演变及枝晶二次臂间距进行了仿真,研究了缺陷形成机理和规律。计算结果与实验吻合良好。计算结果显示,拉速大时二次臂细小,但杂晶产生的趋势加大;拉速小时杂晶不易形成,但二次臂增粗。对实际空心薄壁复杂单晶叶片定向凝固过程的模拟研究表明,二次臂间距在叶身部分分布比较均一, 3.5 mm/min抽拉时有可能在缘板处产生杂晶。采用变拉速工艺,不仅可避免杂晶缺陷,还能保证工件大部分枝晶细小,提高生产效率和成品率     

Multiscale modelling and simulation of single crystal superalloy turbine blade casting during directional solidification process

As the key parts of an aero-engine,single crystal（SX）superalloy turbine blades have been the focus of much attention.However,casting defects often occur during the manufacturing process of the SX turbine blades.Modeling and simulation technology can help to optimize the manufacturing process of SX blades.Multiscale coupled models were proposed and used to simulate the physical phenomena occurring during the directional solidification（DS）process.Coupled with heat transfer（macroscale）and grain growth（meso-scale）,3D dendritic grain growth was calculated to show the competitive grain growth at micro-scale.SX grain selection behavior was studied by the simulation and experiments.The results show that the geometrical structure and technical parameters had strong influences on the grain selection effectiveness.Based on the coupled models,heat transfer,grain growth and microstructure evolution of a complex hollow SX blade were simulated.Both the simulated and experimental results show that the stray grain occurred at the platform of the SX blade when a constant withdrawal rate was used in manufacturing process.In order to avoid the formation of the stray crystal,the multi-scale coupled models and the withdrawal rate optimized technique were applied to the same SX turbine blade.The modeling results indicated that the optimized variable withdrawal rate can achieve SX blade castings with no stray grains,which was also proved by the experiments.     

Stray grain formation,thermomechanical stress and solidification cracking in single crystal nickel base superalloy welds

Abstract

In the present study, the effects of stray grain formation and thermomechanical stresses on solidification cracking in welds of single crystal Ni-base superalloys have been investigated. Welds were made in an asymmetric crystallographic orientation under three different processing conditions. As welding speed and power increased, stray grain formation became extensive, but only on one side of the weld. Solidification cracking also became more extensive and occurred mostly along the stray grain boundaries. The three welding processes have been simulated using the finite element method (FEM). The calculation results showed that thermomechanical stresses increase with welding speed and power, leading to increased susceptibility to cracking. These results agree well with experimental observations.     

Propagation and termination of an internal crack in continuously cast austenitic stainless steel analyzed by ∑ values and the Schmid factor

The formation mechanism of an internal crack was clarified from the viewpoint of the crystallography and thermal expansion. An inverse pole figure map obtained by EBSD pattern showed that the crack propagated along the grain boundaries having high ∑ values within the columnar zone. After the crack initiation, these positions were considered to undergo cracking followed by propagation toward the equiaxed side. Near the termination position, the grains ahead of crack propagation had a Schmid factor higher than 0.45 consuming elastic strain energy. Thermal expansion measurements showed that the grain with (0 0 1) orientation had the largest expansion while that with (0 1 1) the smallest. The grain boundaries neighboring the combination of (0 0 1) and (0 1 1) grains had the largest thermal stress. Therefore, thermal stress contributed to the initiation of cracking. It was thus proposed to enlarge the equiaxed zone to prevent cracking by discontinuing the crack propagation.     

激光冲击处理诱导AZ31B镁合金表面纳米化

根据优化的激光工艺参数,利用激光冲击处理技术在AZ31B镁合金上制备出纳米结构表层,采用X射线衍射仪(XRD)和透射电镜(TEM)表征了AZ31B镁合金激光冲击处理后表面纳米层的微观结构,分析了纳米晶粒内微挛晶的成因,探讨了激光冲击处理诱导AZ31B镁合金晶粒细化的机理。晶粒细化机理归纳如下:在原始晶粒内,位错滑移导致位错缠结,应力集中诱发机械孪生;在亚晶粒和已经细化的晶粒内,继续形成位错缠结和位错胞;位错缠结转变成小角度取向差的亚晶界,细分粗大晶粒成亚晶粒;亚晶界演变成大角度晶界,最终形成等轴状、取向随机分布的纳米晶组织。     

Origin of stray grain formation in single-crystal superalloy weld pools from heat transfer and fluid flow modeling

Stray grain formation in laser and electron beam welds on single-crystal alloy CMSX-4 was investigated through heat transfer and fluid flow simulations. The results were combined with a single-crystal growth model and stray grain calculations to investigate the influence of welding parameters on stray grain formation. Stray grain contents were also experimentally measured on laser and electron beam welds prepared over a wide range of parameters. The experimental and simulation results each demonstrate that stray grain content initially increases and then decreases with increasing travel speed. Increases in beam power produce an increase in the stray grain content. The results also demonstrate that restriction of growth along 〈1 0 0〉 directions decreases the magnitude of the temperature gradient and increases the growth rate along the dendrite growth direction (relative to the solidification interface normal). This effect promotes stray grain formation in the pool by increasing the extent of constitutional supercooling.     

一种镍基单晶叶片叶身-缘板转接区铸造缺陷的形成机理

某种铸态镍基单晶叶片腐蚀后,观察到叶身-缘板转接区存在一种形状规则的条带状杂晶缺陷,且具有方向性,其长度方向平行(或垂直)于叶身和缘板的枝晶生长方向。采用光镜法(OM)、电子探针(EPMA)和电子背散射衍射技术(EBSD),分别研究了缺陷的组织、成分、取向,采用ProCAST模拟研究了缘板区域的温度场和过冷度分布。研究结果表明,叶身-缘板转接区杂晶缺陷由多个柱状晶粒构成;柱状晶粒的组织和成分与缘板基体一致,与基体的取向差形成小角度和大角度晶界;叶身-缘板转接区的过冷度比缘板边缘小,为缘板上的最后凝固区域。在此基础上,提出叶身-缘板转接区杂晶缺陷的形成机理,为消除该缺陷提供了理论基础。     

Modelling hot cracking in 6061 aluminium alloy weld metal with microstructure based criterion

Abstract

Hot cracking in welding is a complex phenomenon due to coupling between process, metallurgy and mechanical loading. A methodology based on process simulation, simple microstructural prediction and a pressure model along columnar grains is developed in order to integrate all factors that influence hot cracking. The model is based on some developments of Rappaz, Drezet and Gremaud and takes into account the influences of grain morphology, mechanical and welding thermal loading, on hot cracking. The model based on the microstructure behaviour is able to predict crack onset location in columnar grains on 6061 aluminium alloy.     

Effect of mould baffle technology on stray grain formation in single crystal blades by integral fabrication based on 3D printing

Stray grains, the most serious casting defect, mainly occur in the platform because of the abrupt transition of the cross-section in the directional solidification of superalloy single-crystal blades. A new mould baffle technology based on 3D printing and gelcasting is proposed herein to reduce the formation of stray grains in the platform. The influence of the proposed mould baffle technology on the temperature field in the platform during solidification was investigated by simulation and experiment. The numerical simulation results indicate that the proposed mould baffle technology can effectively hinder the radiation and heat dissipation at the platform extremities, and therefore, reduce undercooling in the platform and the formation of stray grains during directional solidification. Casting trials of a hollow turbine blade were conducted using CMSX-4 superalloy. The trial results demonstrate the potential of the proposed approach for manufacturing single-crystal superalloy blades.

     

Analysis of the Microstructure and Thermal Shock Resistance of Laser Glazed Nanostructured Zirconia TBCs

Nanostructured zirconia thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have been prepared by atmospheric plasma spraying using the reconstituted nanosized yttria partially stabilized zirconia powder. Field emission scanning electron microscope was applied to examine the microstructure of the resulting TBCs. The results showed that the TBCs exhibited a unique, complex structure including nonmelted or partially melted nanosized particles and columnar grains. A CO₂ continuous wave laser beam has been applied to laser glaze the nanostructured zirconia TBCs. The effect of laser energy density on the microstructure and thermal shock resistance of the as-glazed coatings has been systematically investigated. SEM observation indicated that the microstructure of the as-glazed coatings was very different from the microstructure of the as-sprayed nanostructured TBCs. It changed from single columnar grain to a combination of columnar grains in the fracture surface and equiaxed grains on the surface with increasing laser energy density. Thermal shock resistance tests have showed that laser glazing can double the lifetime of TBCs. The failure of the as-glazed coatings was mainly due to the thermal stress caused by the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the ceramic coat and metallic substrate.     

Simulation of stray grain formation in Ni-base single crystal turbine blades fabricated by HRS and LMC techniques

The simulation models of the thermal and macrostructural evolutions during directional solidification of Ni-base single crystal(SX) turbine blades under high rate solidification(HRS) and liquid metal cooling(LMC) have been constructed using Pro CAST software, coupled with a 3D Cellular Automaton Finite Element(CAFE) model. The models were used to investigate the tendencies of stray grain(SG) formation in the platform region of turbine blades fabricated by HRS and LMC techniques. The results reveal that the LMC technique can prohibit SG formation by smoothing the concaved isotherm and in turn alleviating the undercooling in the platform ends to let the dendrites fill up the undercooled zone before SG nucleation. The simulation results agreed well with the experimental results, indicating that these models could be used to analyze the macrostructural evolution or to optimize process parameters to suppress SG formation. Using these models, the critical withdrawal rate for casting SX turbine blades without SG formation were determined to be around 75 μm·s~(-1) and 100 μm·s~(-1) for HRS and LMC respectively, suggesting that LMC can be used as an efficient technique in fabricating SX turbine blades without any SG defect formation.     

Influence of platform position on stray grain nucleation in Ni-based single-crystal dummy blade clusters

Stray grains are the most severe of the solidification defects that occur in the industrial single-crystal blade preparation process. In this study, a single-crystal dummy blade cluster with different crystal orientations controlled by the seeding method was prepared, and the influence of the position of the circular platform (relative to the sample and furnace body) on stray grain nucleation was investigated. Results show that the microstructure of the circular platforms could be divided into the center, expansion, and stray grain regions. The inside of the circular platform facing the center of the cluster is more prone to stray grain formation than the outside of the circular platform facing the furnace body. With an increase in the distance between the circular platform and the bottom of the dummy blade cluster, the stray grain region expands, whereas the expansion region narrows. The stray grain is slightly aggravated with increase of the misorientation. Finally, the mechanism underlying the influence of platform position on the formation of stray grains in single-crystal dummy blade clusters is discussed based on the temperature evolution during directional solidification.

     

Deformation and cracking near a hole in an oxide forming alloy foil subjected to thermal cycling. Part II: Effects of remotely applied stress

The main protection for the turbine blades in a hot section of a gas turbine are thermal barrier coatings and the cooling air fed through holes distributed on the surfaces of the turbine blades. The predecessor of this work investigated an idealized model of the holes on the surfaces of the blades and the behavior of a hole in a heat-resistant alloy coupon subject to purely thermal cyclic loading. The stress near the hole and the consequent deformation or cracking of the hole were analyzed and traced according to the loading cycles by theoretical and numerical approaches using realistic material properties. In this work, similar approaches were used to investigate the effect of remotely applied stress in addition to thermal cyclic loading, which simulated the loading condition of the turbine blades subjected to not only the high temperature but also the centrifugal force generated by the high-speed revolution in a hot section, on the stress near the hole and the consequent deformation or cracking. The behavior of the hole under the thermomechanical cyclic loading was analyzed by the experiments and theoretical solution. It was revealed that the remotely applied stress substantially enhanced the deformation near the hole, although the stress level was very low. The experimental observation was theoretically explained by superimposing the stress concentration near the hole due to the remotely applied stress over that due to thermal cyclic loading with consideration of the creep properties of the materials.     

Structure simulation in unidirectionally solidified turbine blade by dendrite envelope tracking model （ Ⅱ）： model validation and defects prediction

1 Introduction Commonly, a numerical model should be validated before application. Whether a simulation model for dendritic grain growth is reliable strongly depends on two aspects. 1) The model can effectively describe the anisotropy of grain growth. Th…     

A Predictive Model for Whisker Formation Based on Local Microstructure and Grain Boundary Properties

Whisker and hillock formation in thin films is well known as a highly local mechanism for stress relaxation, where in many cases, only a few whiskers form out of thousands of grains in a film. In this article, the microstructural characteristics for specific grains to form whiskers in β-Sn films are discussed in light of our recent whisker growth model, establishing a relationship among grain boundary sliding limited Coble creep, surface grain geometry, and film stress for different stress conditions, including for thermal cycling. Through our recent finite-element simulations of stresses induced by room-temperature aging and thermal cycling of textured microstructures, the role of elastic and thermoelastic anisotropy in creating preferred whisker formation sites and the general propensity of a film to form whiskers have been proposed for a range of β-Sn film textures. Taken together, these models suggest a strategy for identifying the effects of local microstructure and β-Sn anisotropy on whisker formation. If these predictions are accurate, then whisker growth risk may be effectively reduced by engineering film microstructures and textures for specific applications and stress conditions.