Clinical supervision practices of licensed psychologists.

Surveyed 232 licensed psychologists from 1 midwestern state to assess the nature of clinical supervision for experienced practitioners. Data were collected concerning type, frequency, and content of supervision; supervisor goals, techniques, assessment methods, and roles; and most and least helpful aspects of supervision. There were few significant differences in supervision as a function of supervisee experience, gender, or degree (MA vs PhD), or supervisor gender. The supervisees generally appeared to have autonomous relationships with supervisors who were clinically skilled and highly supportive. Ethical concerns regarding supervisee informed consent, supervisor accountability, and gender-role stereotyping are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A 'bonding between strangers': a palliative model of clinical supervision

This paper examines the role of clinical supervision in relation to the work of palliative care nurses. Through a single 'paradigm' case study illustration the author explores a phenomenologically guided palliative method of supervision. It is suggested that such means of supervised clinical practice forge a bond between patients, families, nurse and colleagues. The discussion explores ethical issues related to supervisory relationships including language, power and gender. The paper concludes with the central recommendation that, aside from methodological considerations, constructing a safe working environment for clinical supervision is important.     

Working with the masculine mystique: Male gender role conflict, counseling self-efficacy, and the training of male psychologists.

Psychologists must be prepared to serve increasingly diverse clients. However, research suggests that specific consequences of a traditional male socialization, collectively known as gender role conflict (GRC), interfere with trainees' developing appropriate therapeutic skills with certain populations. In an effort to address this, and to inform those involved in the training and supervision of male therapists, this article discusses (a) the theory of male GRC, (b) its relationship to the clinical performance of male psychologists, (c) links between that relationship and sense of self-efficacy as a therapist, and (d) specific suggestions for addressing GRC during the course of clinical training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent and nonparent residential family members as providers of warmth and supervision to young adolescents.

In contrast to previous studies that have examined only parents as sources of warmth and supervision, this study examined any residential family member as a source of warmth and supervision. Ss were 6th and 7th graders from 434 2-parent, 66 single-divorced-mother, and 90 stepfather families. The frequency with which mothers, (step)fathers, siblings, and other nonparent family members were nominated as providers of warmth and supervision varied by family structure and adolescent gender. Findings indicate that stepparents, siblings, and adult nonparents need to be viewed as socialization agents, particularly in families affected by divorce and remarriage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy supervision practices of academic faculty: A national survey.

A national sample of 300 American Psychological Association (APA) Division 12 members who hold academic appointments was surveyed about psychotherapy supervision practices. Of the 50.7% who returned questionnaires, results are reported for the 38.3% who described themselves as full-time faculty who regularly provide psychotherapy supervision. While there were substantial individual differences, the average academic supervisor devoted nearly seven hours per week to providing individual and group supervision and was responsible for an average of four graduate trainees, each of whom carried four cases. Despite the professional time commitment and attendant responsibilities and liabilities, 50% of faculty supervisors reported no additional compensation beyond their regular salaries. Also discussed are proportion of time allocated to various supervision modalities (e.g., live supervision) and gender differences in supervision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Countertranferance Among Play Therapists: Implications for Therapist Development and Supervision.

This study examined countertransference management among play therapists. Registered Play Therapist Supervisors (N=154) completed the Countertransference Factors Inventory-Revised and a demographic survey regarding a recent supervisee. The areas explored included countertransference management with regard to therapist gender, academic degree, license, theoretical orientation, type of supervision, population served, practice setting, play therapy training, and experience. A moderate positive correlation of 53% was found between play therapy training and countertransference management. A low positive correlation of 27% was found between years of experience and countertransference management. Differences were found among groups in the areas of degree, license, and practice setting. No significant findings were obtained for gender, theoretical orientation, population served, and type of supervision. The study provides recommendations and implications for supervision of developing play therapists, and suggestions for future research in the area of countertransference among play therapists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On supervision: Reflections of a Latino psychologist.

The clinical supervisory relationship can be used to help psychotherapy trainees develop a more integrated sense of a multicultural and professional self. In this paper, the author shares some of his own training experiences in supervision and their influence on his supervision style. Examples from supervisory sessions are given to demonstrate how issues of race, gender, class, and sexual orientation can be used to advance both the supervision and the treatment. Candid discussions around the transferential and countertransferential issues in the supervision and the treatment can improve the supervisee’s capacity to integrate cultural identity into the developing sense of professional self as a therapist. This process also contributes to the clinical understanding of the person being treated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation and supervisor-supervisee matching on interns' perceptions of supervision.

Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation on supervisees' perceptions of supervisors' models, roles, and foci were studied, as were variables influencing quality of supervision and supervisee autonomy. 84 interns from 32 nationwide training sites were surveyed. Cognitive-behavioral supervisors were perceived to be in a consultant role and to focus on skills and strategies more than were humanistic, psychodynamic, and existential supervisors, who were perceived more as using the relationship model, playing the therapist role, and focusing on conceptualization. Supervisors were not perceived to differ in their use of growth and skill development models, teacher role, and focus on the supervisee. Women were perceived as more effective supervisors than were men. Perceived effectiveness was predicted by theoretical match and similarity. Supervisee autonomy was predicted by theoretical similarity, low supervisor adherence to theory, and unmatched gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of supervisor and trainee gender to in-session verbal behavior and ratings of trainee skills.

This study of 44 supervision dyads investigated the effects of supervisor and trainee gender on the verbal interactions of participants and on their perceptions of trainee skill levels. Supervisor and trainee utterances were coded as being relationship or task focused. Male supervisors paired with male trainees engaged in more task-oriented discourse than did other dyad configurations. In other analyses, gender did not affect which party exerted more effect on the structure of the interactions. Finally, no significant differences were found in how male and female trainees rated their own skill levels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Doctoral students' comparative evaluations of best and worst psychotherapy supervision.

68 male and 74 female advanced clinical and counseling psychology graduate students from 37 programs completed questionnaires comparing their best and worst supervisory experiences in terms of context, personal attributes of the supervisor, and specific interactional aspects. Results indicate that quality of supervision was not related to self-reported intellectual or emotional resources of trainees; training site; population serviced; or the gender, experience, sociability, or primary career activity of the supervisor. The best discriminators of quality were perceived expertise and trustworthiness of the supervisor, duration of training, and an emphasis on personal growth issues over the teaching of technical skills. Highly regarded supervisors were psychodynamic as opposed to behavioral, established supportive relationships, and communicated expectations and feedback clearly. Sexist behavior and authoritarian treatment were particularly detrimental to quality of supervision. These differences were not mediated by prior experience, gender, or theoretical orientation of the respondents. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of supervision in assuring quality mental health services in university counseling centers.

Conducted a survey to explore the relation between the role of supervision and practitioners' experience, training, and certification and to determine how these factors affect quality assurance in university counseling centers. Ss were 185 counselors. Findings indicate that time spent in supervision was not significantly related to the dependent variables of educational level, experience, or licensure, and that unlicensed practitioners were less likely to seek supervision. The lack of supervision and licensed practitioners may be inconsistent with the value placed on supervision as a quality control procedure. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal psychotherapy with men who experience gender role conflict.

Although research on men's gender role conflict reveals that it adversely affects men's psychological health and interpersonal relationships, psychotherapists typically underuse knowledge of masculine gender roles in psychological assessment and treatment. Interpersonal psychotherapy is proposed as a useful framework for working with men whose rigid enactment of traditional male gender roles leads to intrapersonal and interpersonal conflict (i.e., gender role conflict). Thus, this article integrates knowledge of male gender role conflict and interpersonal psychotherapy to examine issues that men who experience gender role conflict bring to their important interpersonal relationships and the therapeutic relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of gender role disparity on couples' decision-making processes.

40 male and 40 female undergraduates were paired into 40 heterosexual couples on the basis of their scores on a role preference scale such that 10 traditional-man/traditional-woman, 10 modern-man/modern-woman, 10 modern-man/traditional-woman, and 10 traditional-man/modern-woman couples were formed. Each couple was given 3 decision-making tasks—1 gender role related (domestic duties task) and 2 control tasks (a fund-raiser banquet and a campus activities task)—in which they were instructed to reach a consensus. Findings show that the hypothesis that couples with greater gender role disparity would require significantly more time to reach a consensus on the gender-related task than gender role similar couples was supported for the traditional-man/modern-woman couples. The hypothesis that traditional-man/modern-woman couples would experience significantly greater difficulty in making decisions regarding gender roles, resulting in decreased satisfaction with any consensus reached, was supported. Results suggest that the importance a person attaches to his/her her gender role preferences may be an important variable influencing gender-role-related decisions, as well as gender role disparity per se. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An exploration of experiences and preferences in clinical supervision with play therapists.

Clinical supervision plays a significant role in the counseling profession. Understanding and refining the supervisory process can foster development in the training of therapists in general and play therapists in particular, ultimately resulting in better mental health services for children. This study was designed to explore the experiences and preferences of play therapists in clinical supervision. Participants (N = 559) completed a Web-hosted survey that included items related to their current and preferred supervision experiences as well as a demographic questionnaire. A subset of the respondents (N = 238) completed questions related to their current supervision experiences. Findings suggest that: (a) a substantial number of participants were not receiving supervision for their work in play therapy, (b) supervisees prefer a combination of group and individual supervision, (c) supervisor professional identity as a play therapist and credential are salient supervisee preferences, and (d) compared to current supervision experiences, supervisee preferences had a noteworthy impact on practical significance demonstrated through large, moderate, and small effect sizes. Results from the study offer an opportunity for professionals to consider changes in how supervision is provided to therapists who work with children in play settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is the gap more than gender? A longitudinal analysis of gender, gender role orientation, and earnings.

This study investigated the relationships among gender, gender role orientation (i.e., attitudes toward the gendered separation of roles at work and at home), and earnings. A multilevel model was conceptualized in which gender role orientation and earnings were within-individual variables that fluctuate over time (although predictors of between-individual differences in gender role orientation were also considered). Results indicated that whereas traditional gender role orientation was positively related to earnings, gender significantly predicted the slope of this relationship: Traditional gender role orientation was strongly positively associated with earnings for men; it was slightly negatively associated with earnings for women. Occupational segregation partly explained these gender differences. Overall, the results suggest that although gender role attitudes are becoming less traditional for men and for women, traditional gender role orientation continues to exacerbate the gender wage gap. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' and Fathers' Knowledge of Adolescents' Daily Activities: Its Sources and Its Links With Adolescent Adjustment.

To elucidate the benefits ascribed to parental monitoring, the authors examined links between parental knowledge and methods of obtaining knowledge about adolescents' activities, and links between these constructs and adolescent adjustment. The roles of parent gender, adolescent gender, and family earner status in these associations were also studied. Participants were 95 adolescents (ages 10 to 17 years, 60% male and 40% female) and their parents. Mothers knew more about adolescents' activities than did fathers and were more likely than fathers to gain information by active supervision or voluntary disclosure from the adolescent. Fathers, more than mothers, received information via spouses. Active methods of supervision predicted more knowledge among fathers and mothers from dual-earner families but not among mothers from single-earner families. More maternal knowledge predicted lower adolescent deviance. No method of gaining knowledge predicted adjustment directly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence-based practices addressed in community-based children's mental health clinical supervision.

Clinical supervision is the principal method of training for psychotherapeutic practice, however there is virtually no research on supervision practice in community settings. Of particular interest is the role supervision might play in facilitating implementation of evidence-based (EB) care in routine care settings. This study examines the format and functions of clinical supervision sessions in routine care, as well as the extent to which supervision addresses psychotherapeutic practice elements common to EB care for children with disruptive behavior problems, who represent the majority of patients served in publicly funded routine care settings. Supervisors (n = 7) and supervisees (n = 12) from four publicly funded community-based child mental health clinics reported on 130 supervision sessions. Supervision sessions were primarily individual in-person meetings lasting one hour. The most common functions included case conceptualization and therapy interventions. Coverage of practice elements common to EB treatments was brief. Despite the fact that most children presenting to public mental health services are referred for disruptive behavior problems, supervision sessions are infrequently focused on practice elements consistent with EB treatments for this population. Supervision is a promising avenue through which training in EB practices could be supported to improve the quality of care for children in community-based “usual care” clinics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature.

Contends, on the basis of posited social-role theory of gender and helping, that the male gender role fosters helping that is heroic and chivalrous, whereas the female gender role fosters helping that is nurturant and caring. In social psychological studies, helping behavior has mainly been examined in the context of short-term encounters with strangers. This focus has tended to exclude from the research literature those helping behaviors prescribed by the female gender role, because they are displayed primarily in long-term, close relationships. In contrast, the helping behaviors prescribed by the male gender role have been generously represented in research findings because they are displayed in relationships with strangers as well as in close relationships. Results from a meta-analytic review of sex differences in 172 studies (appended) in helping behavior indicate that in general men helped more than women and women received more help than men. Nevertheless, sex differences in helping were inconsistent across studies and were successfully predicted by various attributes of the studies and the helping behaviors. (96 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Constraints and triggers: Situational mechanics of gender in negotiation.

The authors propose 2 categories of situational moderators of gender in negotiation: situational ambiguity and gender triggers. Reducing the degree of situational ambiguity constrains the influence of gender on negotiation. Gender triggers prompt divergent behavioral responses as a function of gender. Field and lab studies (1 and 2) demonstrated that decreased ambiguity in the economic structure of a negotiation (structural ambiguity) reduces gender effects on negotiation performance. Study 3 showed that representation role (negotiating for self or other) functions as a gender trigger by producing a greater effect on female than male negotiation performance. Study 4 showed that decreased structural ambiguity constrains gender effects of representation role, suggesting that situational ambiguity and gender triggers work in interaction to moderate gender effects on negotiation performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stages in psychotherapy supervision: From therapy skills to skilled therapist.

Describes the process of psychotherapy supervision as 4 increasingly complex stages of supervisory focus. The 4 stages are based on the belief that psychotherapy progress is determined by the interaction between clients' presenting problems, their personalities, the techniques used by the therapists, and the interpersonal interactions of the therapists. The proposed stages of supervision include developing basic therapy skills and adopting the therapist's role, expanding the range of skills and roles to match the client's problems and role expectations, developing the trainee's ability to assess the client's habitual and conflicting behavior patterns and select effective intervention methods, and helping the trainee learn to use the self in assessment and intervention. These 4 stages are not regarded as mutually exclusive but as primary focal issues during the process of supervision. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)