The relative importance of social and institutional conditions in the planning of wind power projects

Governments around the world try to stimulate the development and use of renewable energy technologies, like wind energy. While wind turbines are increasingly being implemented, however, a lack of social acceptance at the local level remains an important challenge for developers of wind power plants. This article aims to explore the relative importance of social and institutional conditions and their interdependencies in the operational process of planning wind power schemes. The article not only focuses on how negative local social conditions can frustrate public policy (cf. NIMBY syndrome), but also on how positive local social conditions can compensate for a negative public policy framework. We analyzed the cases of implementing wind power of two actors (the regional energy distributor and small private investors) in the municipality of Zeewolde, the Netherlands. Both cases illustrate that the formal institutional framework (formal rules, procedures and instruments) is neutral in a certain sense. Social conditions – management styles, interests and informal contacts – put meaning in this framework. The way stakeholders deal with the prevailing institutional structure clarifies social acceptance and therewith implementation.     

Public perceptions of wind energy developments: Case studies from New Zealand

Although the public generally hold positive attitudes towards wind energy, proposals for the construction of new wind farms are often met with strong resistance. In New Zealand, where the government has recently introduced ambitious policy targets for renewable energy generation, negative perceptions of wind farms are increasingly evident and have the potential to prevent the achievement of these targets. This research sets out to examine what influences social resistance to wind farms in New Zealand. Drawing from public submissions on three wind farm proposals, a framework developed by Devine-Wright [Devine-Wright, P., 2005a. Beyond NIMBYism: towards an integrated Framework for Understanding Public Perceptions of Wind Energy. Wind Energy 8, 125–139.] was used as the basis for identification of factors affecting public perceptions of wind farms. The research found firstly that there was no apparent relationship between the proximity of submitters to a proposed wind farm and their likelihood of having a negative perception of the proposal. A wide range of factors written in submissions appeared to have affected the submitter's decision to support or oppose the wind farm proposal. Some of these were consistent with Devine-Wright's findings, but ten further factors were added to the framework to adequately cover the aspects raised in submissions. The findings have implications for the achievement of New Zealand's energy policy aspirations.     

The problem of windfarm location: A social multi-criteria evaluation framework

Although wind energy has the green image, the location of windfarms is always a source of local conflicts. Opposition may depend on the extensive land use of windfarms, their possible impacts on tourism or their visual impact, as well as NIMBY (Never In My Back-Yard) behavior. On the other hand, some social actors are normally in favor of wind parks because they perceive them as a possibility of development or simply a source of income. In these situations, the management of the energy policy process involves many layers and kinds of decisions, and requires the construction of a dialogue process among many social actors, individual and collective, formal and informal, local and non-local. This implies that the political and social framework must find a place in evaluation exercises. This is the objective of social multi-criteria evaluation (SMCE). In this article, SMCE is proposed as a general framework for dealing with the problem of wind park location. The major strength of SMCE is the possibility of integrating both socio-economic and technical dimensions inside a coherent framework. A real-world case study is used as an illustrative example.     

Intention to respond to local wind turbines: the role of attitudes and visual perception

Wind power projects frequently face public opposition during the siting process. A deeper understanding of social factors has therefore been called for. Based on psychological theories, the present research was initiated in order to study the relative importance of individual aspects related to visual perception and attitudinal factors in public intention to oppose local wind turbines. In an empirical study, 80 people assessed the visual characteristics of wind turbines on site and rated their emotional state. They also completed a questionnaire covering attitudes towards the turbines, perception of significant others' opinions of local wind turbines, and perceived possibilities to oppose as well as intention to oppose local turbines. Moreover, socio‐demographics, factors related to the place of residence and general attitude towards wind power, were investigated. In a multiple regression analysis explaining 50% of the variance, it was found that intention to oppose was related to only a few perceptual and attitudinal factors, i.e. the perceived unity of the environment, the personal attitude towards the effects of wind turbines on landscape aesthetics and recreation, and the general attitude towards wind power. Of minor importance was the attitude towards the effects of wind turbines on people's daily quality of life. It seems important to involve the public in the discussion of how wind power installations can be integrated into the landscape without threatening the visual beauty and the recreational value of the natural and cultural environment. Moreover, social intervention is required to promote positive attitudes towards wind turbines. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A geographic analysis of wind turbine placement in Northern California

The development of new wind energy projects requires a significant consideration of land use issues. An analytic framework using a Geographic Information System (GIS) was developed to evaluate site suitability for wind turbines and to predict the locations and extent of land available for feasible wind power development. The framework uses rule-based spatial analysis to evaluate different scenarios. The suitability criteria include physical requirements as well as environmental and human impact factors. By including socio-political concerns, this technique can assist in forecasting the acceptance level of wind farms by the public. The analysis was used to evaluate the nine-county region of the Greater San Francisco Bay Area. The model accurately depicts areas where large-scale wind farms have been developed or proposed. It also shows that there are many locations available in the Bay Area for the placement of smaller-scale wind turbines. The framework has application to other regions where future wind farm development is proposed. This information can be used by energy planners to predict the extent that wind energy can be developed based on land availability and public perception.     

Residents' perceptions of wind turbines: An analysis of two townships in Michigan

Wind energy development has become a ‘hot topic’ across Michigan as this state seeks to achieve 10% of energy delivered to consumers from renewable sources (Huron County Planning Commission, 2005). The focus of this effort to generate renewable energy has centered around wind energy. Wind turbines have been constructed at numerous locations across the state. The lower peninsulas' eastern counties near Lake Huron and Saginaw Bay were designated by the Wind Energy Resource Zone board as one such area of strong sustained wind in the state. Turbines have been constructed in ‘pockets’ across this ‘thumb’ region, yet half a decade after the first turbines were constructed, negative perceptions are still attributed to wind turbines. This paper examines residents of wind farm locations as a whole and independently as groups (those in opposition and in support of development) to identify what, if any similarities and differences, exist between the residents' perceptions. Qualitative analysis on stated negative perceptions unveiled common issues with residents: increased price of electricity with wind energy, noise from the turbine rotation and uncertainty surrounding the long term effects of wind turbines. These areas of concern seem to persist years after construction was completed.     

Conceptualizing the acceptance of wind and solar electricity

Drawing from research interviews and the academic literature, this article conceptualizes the conditions that promote investor confidence and the social acceptance of wind and solar sources of electricity. It explores the factors influencing the acceptance of commercial wind turbines in Denmark and India and residential solar panels in Germany and the United States. The article begins by justifying its selection of case studies and explaining the methodology behind its research interviews and field visits. It then summarizes some of the key findings in recent surveys of public attitudes and market acceptance concerning renewable energy, with a focus on why some investors and communities reject wind and solar systems whereas others rapidly approve and adopt them. The article proposes that acceptance has multiple dimensions – socio-political, community, and market – that must be met holistically in order for investors and users to embrace renewable energy. The article argues that acceptance hinges upon the prevalence of nine factors; the lack of such factors creates environments where they are rejected. The theory is tested against four case studies that explore the forces driving renewable energy in Denmark, Germany, India, and the United States.     

Understanding public responses to offshore wind power

This paper is about understanding the role and importance of public responses to offshore wind power. It builds on a framework for understanding social acceptance and opposition to onshore turbines, and reviews the emerging research on offshore wind. While less is known about how people will respond to offshore than onshore wind, there is now an emerging body of research. From this literature, several common factors which influence responses have emerged and are discussed here: the (continued) role of visual impact; place attachment to the local area; lack of tangible benefits; relationships with developers and outsiders; and the role of the planning and decision-making systems. The paper argues that, as with onshore developments, the public should be included in decision-making about offshore wind farms, and that they have a key role which should not be underestimated. The paper concludes with some thoughts about the means to involve people and how effected communities might be effectively acknowledged, identified and engaged.     

Advocacy coalitions and wind power development: Insights from Quebec

This article addresses the issue of wind energy acceptance in the Canadian province of Quebec and, in particular, the impact of different models of wind power development on the degree of social acceptance. We show that the dominant advocacy coalition, which favors a hard path energy development in general, enforces a large-scale development of wind energy. Two other coalitions – a soft path coalition and a nationalist coalition – oppose this development, but not wind energy per se. We argue that difference in belief systems explains their opposition rather than planning issues or NIMBY concerns. We also contend that, despite its predominance over (wind) energy policy, the hard path coalition is willing to learn and make concessions towards the soft path coalition, but not towards the nationalist coalition.     

Gone with the wind? The impact of wind turbines on tourism demand

While wind energy production is relatively free from environmental externalities such as air pollution, it is frequently considered to negatively impact landscapes' visual aesthetic values, thereby inducing negative effects on tourism demand. Existing evidence for Germany indeed points towards a negative relationship between tourism demand and wind turbine construction. However, the existing studies primarily rely on interview data and simple bivariate statistics. In contrast, we make use of secondary statistics on tourism and wind turbine locations at the level of German municipalities. Using spatial panel regression techniques, we confirm a negative relation between wind turbines around municipalities and tourism demand for municipalities not located near the coast. In the latter regions, the relation between wind turbines and tourism demand is more complex.     

Public acceptance of renewable energies: Results from case studies in Germany

This article addresses the public acceptance of certain renewable energies (grid-connected larger PV ground-installed systems, biomass plants and wind turbines) from a socio-scientific perspective. Using an environmental–psychological approach to investigate the social factors relevant to the formation of public acceptance towards renewable energies in four different regions, recommendations for the further implementation of renewable energy systems were to be derived. The present study has been conducted in a multi-modal research design combining a standardised questionnaire and qualitative interviews and focused on the residents’ views and perceptions. Especially within the quantitative analyses, the results indicate that economic consideration of the respective renewable energy system, understood as a positive cost–benefit calculation made by the individual, is the strongest predictor for a reported acceptance. Furthermore, the importance of landscape evaluation and a strong connection between procedural justice criteria, such as transparency, early and accurate information as well as possibilities to participate during the planning and installation process, and a reported public acceptance became evident. Qualitative data were analysed in reference to the grounded theory and showed the relevance of the operating company's commitment on the local level, participation of the general public and the choice of the location for the plant were among the relevant aspects for acceptance in the implementation process.     

The role of values in public beliefs and attitudes towards commercial wind energy

Mandates for renewable energy lead to siting disputes, because meeting the mandates requires the development of renewable energy production facilities. Proposals for one common form of renewable energy, commercial wind farms, are frequently met with forceful local opposition. Dissatisfied with simplistic explanations for this opposition (i.e., NIMBY), social scientists have urged a more nuanced understanding of public attitudes towards wind energy and other renewables. Based on a survey of residents of coastal Michigan, this article explores the role of general values and beliefs in shaping attitudes towards the potential development of commercial wind energy projects in or near respondents’ communities. Structural equation modeling reveals that support of commercial wind energy depends largely on a belief that wind farms will provide economic benefits to the community. Underlying values have substantial and important indirect effects on beliefs regarding the likely economic outcomes of wind farm development. Altruistic values buoy wind energy attitudes, while values of traditionalism diminish wind energy support. The pivotal role of values in attitudes towards renewables lends support for more participatory development processes.     

Wind power and the NIMBY-myth: institutional capacity and the limited significance of public support

In many countries, the development of wind power capacity has proceeded more slowly than expected. Levels of public acceptance are usually considered primary indicators of support for wind power within society. Surveys generally show strong overall public support for wind power, while concrete projects are felt to suffer from the Not-In-My-Backyard (NIMBY) syndrome. This paper questions the significance of these outcomes. It argues that other barriers to wind power implementation exist beyond attitudes among the population. The argument is made that institutional factors have a greater impact on wind energy facility siting. We will discuss two examples of how institutional factors shape the level of support when implementing wind power.     

Green vs. green: Measuring the compensation required to site electrical generation windmills in a viewshed

Proponents of wind power note that wind is a green energy source. Yet locating electrical generating windmills has become difficult in some localities because of potential negative externalities. We address why the NIMBY syndrome may arise when choosing site locations by addressing the perceived property rights of a viewshed, the role of compensation in a NIMBY impasse, and how concerns for the environment might lessen the compensation required. We use a willingness to accept framework to measure the compensation required to allow wind generation windmills to be built in the mountains of North Carolina. We find that individuals who perceive wind energy as a clean source of power require less compensation. Those who retire to the mountains or individuals who have ancestors from Watauga County require more compensation to accept windmills in their viewshed. In addition, we find in a bivariate-probit analysis that individuals who are more likely to participate in a green energy program are also more likely to allow electrical generation windmills in their viewshed, suggesting that the green vs. green environmental debate is overstated.     

Environmental activism and vertical‐axis wind turbine preferences in California

Wind energy is widely recognized as a key element of the worldwide effort to limit greenhouse gas emissions. As compared with the general population, environmental activists have a much higher level of knowledge, interest, and capacity to affect the final outcome of a proposed wind turbine facility. To explore how their opinions on wind energy, particularly on vertical‐axis wind turbines, differ from the general public, we administered the same online experimental survey to a general population sample of adult Californians and to a self‐selected sample of online energy and environmental activists. We find that support for wind energy increases with the degree of environmental activism and engagement. The general public prefers vertical‐axis wind turbines in open spaces, away from one's residence. Location and price sensitivity, however, are weaker among activists. Among activists, attitudes about specific vertical‐axis wind turbine technologies are more crystalized and less susceptible to the information effects except on the topic of minimizing bird deaths.     

大型海上风力机地震冲击角动力学响应分析

为研究海上风力机在不同地震冲击角下的动力学响应,基于p-y曲线法构建土-构耦合模型,基于DTU 10 MW 单桩式近海风力机建立有限元模型,研究地震冲击角变化对大型海上风力机地震动力学响应的影响。结果表明：0°和90°地震冲击角下风力机结构受载荷响应最剧烈;当地震冲击角为锐角时,塔顶前后向和侧向位移幅值均下降,总应变能集聚现象显著缓解;地震冲击角为15°和30°时风力机等效应力均值相对其他角度有明显下降。因此,主动调整风力机叶轮朝向以调整地震冲击角可能成为风力机受地震冲击后降低损害的有效控制方式。     

Empowering the electric grid: Can SMES coupled to wind turbines improve grid stability?

The transition to a low carbon energy portfolio necessitates a reduction in the demand of fossil-fuel and an increase in renewable energy generation and penetration. Wind energy in particular is ubiquitous, yet the stochastic nature of wind energy hinders its wide-spread adoption into the electric grid. Numerous techniques (improved wind forecasting, improved wind turbine design and improved power electronics) have been proposed to increase the penetration of wind energy, yet only a few have addressed the challenges of wind intermittency, grid stability and flexibility simultaneously. The problem of excess wind energy results in wind curtailment and has plagued large scale wind integration. NREL's HOMER software is used to show that a strong negative correlation exists between the cycles to failure of a storage device and the excess wind energy on the system. A 1 MJ magnesium-diboride superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system is designed to alleviate momentary interruptions (lasting from a few milli-seconds to a few minutes) in wind turbines. The simulation results establish the efficacy of SMES coupled with wind turbines improve output power quality and show that a 1 MJ SMES alleviated momentary interruptions for ∼50 s in 3 MW wind turbines. These studies suggest that SMES when coupled to wind turbines could be ideal storage devices that improve wind power quality and electric grid stability.     

On the role of surface roughness in the aerodynamic performance and energy conversion of horizontal wind turbine blades: a review

Renewable energy is one of the main pillars of sustainable development, especially in developing economies. Increasing energy demand and the limitation of fossil fuel reserves make the use of renewable energy essential for sustainable development. Wind energy is considered to be one of the most important resources of renewable energy. In North African countries, such as Egypt, wind energy has an enormous potential; however, it faces quite a number of technical challenges related to the performance of wind turbines in the Saharan environment. Seasonal sand storms affect the performance of wind turbines in many ways, one of which is increasing the wind turbine aerodynamic resistance through the increase of blade surface roughness. The power loss because of blade surface deterioration is significant in wind turbines. The surface roughness of wind turbine blades deteriorates because of several environmental conditions such as ice or sand. This paper is the first review on the topic of surface roughness effects on the performance of horizontal‐axis wind turbines. The review covers the numerical simulation and experimental studies as well as discussing the present research trends to develop a roadmap for better understanding and improvement of wind turbine performance in deleterious environments. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Renewable and nuclear electricity: Comparison of environmental impacts

Given the widely acknowledged negative impacts of fossil fuels, both on human health and on potential climate change, it is of interest to compare the impacts of low carbon alternative energy sources such as nuclear energy, hydropower, solar, wind and biomass. In this paper, we review the literature in order to summarise the impacts of the different technologies in terms of their materials and energy requirements, their emissions during operation, their health effects during operation, the accident risks, and the associated waste streams. We follow up these comparisons with some more anecdotal evidence on selected impacts that are either particularly topical or are important but less commonly addressed. These include impacts of wind turbines on persons and on bird life, the underestimated problems with biomass, and concerns about biodiversity reduction. Finally we address the public attitudes towards both renewable energy technologies and to nuclear power. The conclusion is drawn that energy policies of many countries are perhaps more strongly influenced by public and political perceptions of available technologies than they are by rational assessment of the actual benefits and drawbacks. Policy recommendations follow from this conclusion.