Behavioral interventions in resource conservation: A systems approach based on behavioral economics.

Outlines some of the advantages of an integration of psychological (social-learning) and economic conceptualizations when developing behavioral interventions in resource conservation. The procedures and results of rebate studies in residential energy and water conservation are presented in which rebates were used as a method to modify conservation behaviors and to estimate experimental price elasticity in contrast to the usual econometric methods. A meta-analysis is performed on behavioral energy studies conducted from 1973 to 1980, which shows that the effectiveness of rebates and feedback is partially explained by an economic factor. Also reviewed are field-based studies designed to modify perceptions of comfort and residential energy conservation in addition to the development of a rebate system instituted to reduce domestic water consumption. Maximization theory is offered as an integrative, conceptual framework that may be useful for planning resource conservation interventions. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive dissonance and energy conservation.

Examined whether high consumers of electricity placed in a cognitively dissonant situation would conserve electricity over a 4-wk period. 272 households in Perth, Western Australia, owning ducted air conditioning and consuming above-average amounts of electricity were included in the study. Four experimental groups were compared. The 4 groups were as follows: (a) the dissonance plus tips plus feedback group, who were informed of an inconsistency between their previously measured attitudes toward conservation and actual high consumption of electricity; (b) the feedback plus tips group, who were notified that they were high consumers of electricity; (c) the tips-only group, who were sent information on ways to conserve electricity (also sent to Groups 1 and 2); and (d) the control group, who were sent a thank-you letter for participating in the study. It was found, in keeping with bolstering behavior predictions of cognitive dissonance theory, that the dissonance group conserved more electricity than all other groups in the 1st 2-wk measurement period. For the 2nd 2-wk measurement period, the dissonance group differed only from the control group. Self-reported behavior change and number of requests for additional conservation materials were not reliable indicators of actual conservation behavior. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations for success on effort-determined tasks as a function of incentive and performance feedback.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate an attributional analysis of the consequences of perceiving one's effort as stable, as opposed to unstable, on future performance expectancies. In Exp I, 32 male undergraduates were told that performance on the experimental tasks was purely effort determined; they expected a monetary incentive for good performance on half the tasks and received preprogrammed feedback that their performance was either variable or consistent. In Exp II, both 45 male and 51 female Ss believed the tasks were either effort or ability determined and received variable or consistent feedback; incentive was operationalized as the level of task interestingness. As predicted, Ss who believed performance was effort determined and received variable feedback had higher expectations for performance on a later task when its incentive value was high than when it was low. Ss receiving consistent feedback did not differ in their expectations, regardless of the incentive value of the task. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The transparency of denial: Briefing in the debriefing paradigm.

Tested a new conceptualization of the impression-perseverance effect, using 92 undergraduates. As in earlier studies (e.g., Exp II conducted by L. Ross et al [see PA, Vol 55:7163]), some actor and observer Ss were given false feedback about the actor–Ss' performance in the experiment and then were informed during debriefing that the feedback had not been genuine. Other Ss, however, received a briefing about the falsity of the feedback before the task performance. These briefed Ss, like the debriefed Ss, subsequently made estimates of the actors' actual performance on the task that were significantly influenced in the direction of the false feedback. The briefed Ss did not, however, follow the debriefed Ss in making ability attributions to the actor in line with their performance estimates. Results cast doubt on the notion that attributional processing of the false information, as observed in the debriefing condition, is a necessary component of the perseverance effect. The idea that denied information and the denial may contribute independently to subsequent impressions is offered as an alternative explanation of briefing and debriefing phenomena. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Treatment of childhood migraine using autogenic feedback training.

Assigned 28 7–16 yr olds who suffered from migraine headaches to 1 of 2 conditions (treatment group or waiting-list control group). All Ss recorded at breakfast, lunch, dinner, and bedtime whether they had a headache and its intensity. The records of headache index, frequency, duration, intensity, average intensity, and medication generated weekly scores. Analysis showed that Ss in the treatment condition were significantly improved at the end of treatment (7 wks) and at 1-mo follow-up. No improvement was found for control Ss. 93% of Ss in the autogenic feedback condition were clinically improved, using a criterion of 50% reduction of headache activity. Six months after treatment, Ss were asked to complete headache recordings. 13 Ss responded (8 Ss from the treatment groups and 5 from the control group). Treated Ss maintained significant improvement. Findings are important in light of the need for effective nonpharmacological treatment procedures for childhood migraine. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Area and volume conservation among the elderly: Assessment and training.

Conducted 2 studies to examine whether the elderly maintain the competence to adequately solve problems of logical thinking. In the 1st study the performance of 60 noninstitutionalized middle-class elderly females was assessed on area and volume conservation tasks. On overall performance only 33.3% of the Ss were classified as conservers. In the 2nd study a training paradigm was used to determine whether simple verbal feedback activated the strategies required for adequate performance on conservation tasks. 22 Ss who failed at least 2 conservation tasks in the assessment study were administered a 20-trial training procedure. Half of these Ss received simple verbal feedback following each response, while half received no feedback. Results on an immediate posttest indicated that the feedback group performed significantly better than the control group on the near transfer posttest task and on the majority of far transfer tasks. The results are discussed in terms of a distinction between competence and performance. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Photographic self-concept enhancement of male juvenile delinquents.

Describes the enhancement of self-concepts of 16 13-16 yr old male juvenile delinquents using a program of photographic feedback about themselves. According to their Tennessee Self-Concept Scale scores, Ss who received the weekly photographic feedback sessions, compared to 14 controls increased in total self-concept, self-satisfaction, and the use of psychological defenses necessary for the maintenance of self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ability versus effort attributional feedback: Differential effects on self-efficacy and achievement.

Explored the effects of ability and effort attributional feedback given during subtraction competency development on 44 3rd graders' perceived self-efficacy and achievement. Ss who were deficient in subtraction skills received training on subtraction operations and engaged in problem solving, during which they periodically received ability-attributional feedback for their progress, effort feedback, ability?+?effort feedback, or no attributional feedback. Ss given only ability feedback demonstrated the highest subtraction skill and self-efficacy; the effort and ability?+?effort conditions did not differ, but each outperformed the no-feedback condition. Future research should examine in greater detail how children process attributional information and its effects on achievement outcomes. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative contributions of modeling, informational influences, and physical contact in extinction of phobic behavior.

Treated 1 member of a matched triad of adult snake phobics with a participant modeling procedure in which he received the benefits of modeling, verbal information, and direct contact with the feared object. 1 of the 2 other Ss, who observed the treatment, listened to the persuasive communications of E, thus receiving the joint benefits of modeling and verbal information. The 2nd O received only the benefits of modeling. Relative to an untreated control group, all treated Ss showed significant increases in approach behavior, reduction in approach-related fear, and positive changes in attitudes toward snakes. Between-condition analyses revealed that modeling accounted for the majority of the change variance, with direct contact contributing significant increments to approach behavior and fear reduction but not to attitude change. Verbal information made no significant contribution to the positive changes; in fact, indirect evidence indicated that it had a negative influence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of contingency-contracting and decision-making groups with chronic mental patients.

Placed 74 29-74 yr. old institutionalized male mental patients in 1 of 3 treatment conditions for a 4-mo period. Ss in the milieu condition received the customary hospital treatment; Ss in the interaction condition received the same treatment as the milieu condition but received 2 hr. additional weekly group therapy; Ss in the incentive condition were placed in groups responsible for making decisions concerning group members. Ss in the incentive condition were rewarded with funds and canteen books contingent upon recommendations from the groups and attendance of Ss in each group at all activities. Results show the incentive condition as superior on percentage of attendance at activities, town passes taken, and days spent out of the hospital, while the interaction condition was superior on nurses' rating scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior change, weight loss, and physiological improvements in Type II diabetic patients.

53 obese 30–70 yr olds with Type 2 diabetes treated by diet only or oral medication were assigned to a behavior-modification, nutrition-education, or standard-care treatment condition to investigate whether behavior modification would improve short- and long-term results of weight control programs for Ss. The behavior-modification and nutrition-education groups met weekly for 16 wks and were given the same information on nutrition, exercise, and diabetes; however, strategies to change eating behavior were used in the behavior-modification condition. The standard-care condition was identical to the nutrition-education condition except that Ss met only 4 times over the 16-wk treatment period. Results indicate that behavior-modification Ss lost more weight than either the nutrition-education or standard-care Ss during the 16-wk treatment period. However, at 16-mo follow-up, differences in weight loss across treatment conditions were not significant. Physiological parameters and mood improved with initial weight loss, but these changes were not maintained. Physiological changes appeared more directly related to weight loss than to treatment condition. Changes in weight were related to improved eating and exercise habits, and modest weight losses of 4.6–23.6 kg produced significant improvements in blood-sugar control. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral treatment of Raynaud's disease.

32 20–65 yr olds with idiopathic Raynaud's disease were randomly assigned to receive finger temperature feedback, finger temperature feedback under cold stress, frontalis EMG feedback, or autogenic training. Ss receiving finger temperature feedback demonstrated significant temperature increases, without relaxation, during training and after the removal of feedback. A significant but smaller response was retained 1 yr later, accompanied by a 66.8% reduction in reported attacks. The addition of training under cold stress to temperature feedback significantly improved retention of voluntary vasodilation at follow-up and produced a 92.5% reduction in symptom frequency. These procedures did not change overall levels of tonic peripheral blood flow, recorded over 24 hrs in the natural environment. Following treatment, significantly colder temperatures were needed to produce attacks in these Ss compared to those who had received EMG feedback or autogenic training. These latter techniques produced the expected signs of decreased arousal but were significantly less effective than temperature feedback in increasing finger temperature or decreasing symptom frequency. Cognitive stress management did not significantly affect any procedure. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategy training and attributional feedback with learning disabled students.

Investigated the effects of verbalization of subtraction with regrouping operations and effort-attributional feedback on the self-efficacy and skillful performance of 90 Ss (aged 11 yrs 2 mo to 16 yrs 2 mo) in Grades 6–8 who were classified as learning disabled in mathematics. Ss received training and solved problems over sessions. Ss in the 1st condition verbalized aloud while solving problems (continuous verbalization), those in the 2nd condition verbalized only during the 1st half of training (discontinued verbalization), and those in the 3rd condition did not verbalize (no verbalization). All Ss were periodically monitored and received effort feedback during the 1st half of training, effort feedback during the 2nd half of training, or no effort feedback. Findings show that continuous verbalization led to higher self-efficacy and skillful performance than did discontinued and no verbalization; providing effort feedback promoted these achievement behaviors more than not providing feedback did. Effort feedback during the 1st half of training enhanced effort attributions. The process by which verbalization promotes achievement outcomes is discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of individual learning expectations on student achievement.

Evaluated the effects on academic achievement of an evaluation-reward system in which students received points based on a comparison of their weekly quiz performance and a base score derived from a pretest and adjusted to reflect actual weekly performance. The points were reported in a weekly class newsletter. Ss were 389 6th–8th graders in 16 English classes studying a 9-wk language mechanics unit. Data were analyzed at the class level. Ss in the 7 classes that received the experimental treatment achieved more on a final standardized test, controlling for pretest score, than did the 9 control classes. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Symbolic play and its cognitive significance.

Explored the relationship between symbolic play training and conservation attainment. Ss were 30 middle-class nonconserving children, with a median age of 4.3 yrs. After extensive pretests on conservation of quantity, 15 nonconservers were assigned to the experimental condition, consisting of 3 sessions of symbolic play on consecutive days, and 15 Ss were assigned to the control condition, consisting of 3 daily play sessions with puzzles, mosaics, and drawing tasks. Subsequent to the play sessions, Ss were given conservation of quantity posttests. Results show that 13 of the experimental Ss manifested some change in solving conservation problems, with 4 Ss reaching the level of full conservation attainment. Only a single S from the control group showed a change toward conservation on the posttests. Data are interpreted as supporting a cognitive function of symbolic play. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect.

Two studies with 129 undergraduates examined whether the type of emotional change experienced by individuals is influenced by the magnitude and accessibility of the different types of self-discrepancies they possess. In both studies, Ss filled out a measure of self-discrepancy a few weeks prior to the experimental session. Ss were asked to list up to 10 attributes each for their actual self, their ideal self (their own or others' hopes and goals for them), and their ought self (their own or others' beliefs about their duty and obligations). In Study 1, Ss asked to imagine a positive or negative event who had a predominant actual–ideal discrepancy felt more dejected on a mood measure and wrote more slowly on a writing-speed task in the negative event condition than in the positive event condition. Ss with a predominant actual–ought discrepancy felt more agitated and wrote more quickly in the negative event condition. In Study 2, Ss high or low in both kinds of discrepancies were either asked to discuss their own and their parents' hopes and goals for them (ideal priming) or asked to discuss their own and their parents' beliefs concerning their duty and obligations (ought priming). For high-discrepancy Ss, ideal priming increased their dejection, whereas ought priming increased their agitation. (59 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-consciousness, self-esteem, and success–failure as determinants of alcohol consumption in male social drinkers.

Tested the proposition that alcohol is consumed as a function of the quality of past performances and of the individual's level of private self-consciousness. 120 adult male Ss were randomly given success or failure feedback on an intellectual task. They then participated in a separate "wine-tasting" experiment in which they were allowed to regulate alcohol consumption. As predicted, high self-conscious Ss who had received failure feedback drank significantly more than did high self-conscious Ss who received success feedback. Consumption by low self-conscious Ss fell between these extremes and did not vary as a function of success and failure. Ss' scores on the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List indicated that these results were mediated by differential sensitivity to the positive or negative implications of success/failure by high and low self-conscious Ss. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapeutic effectiveness of setting and monitoring goals.

Investigated the therapeutic effects of goal-setting strategies on 32 adult patients whose behaviors were disintegrating but not fragmented nor disoriented. Two techniques of goal setting were introduced: (a) collaboration of patients, therapists, and "collaterals" (other persons significant to the patient) on 3-mo treatment goals and (b) weekly monitoring with structured feedback. 16 Ss were randomly assigned to a treatment group for which the Behavioral Monitoring Progress Record (BMPR) was used. The other 16 Ss were randomly assigned to the same individual therapy but without weekly goal setting or monitoring. Collateral persons and behavioral criteria were used at intake for collecting information in each problem area and were used at follow-up to validate the S's self-report. The Goal Attainment Scale and Follow-up Interview Schedule were used to evaluate change. All Ss improved from the time of intake to the time of the follow-up interview. BMPR Ss had greater success in the attainment of goals. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Simple versus complex feedback displays in the training of digital temperature.

Trained 15 male volunteers for 2 days to increase their hand temperature; 8 Ss received analog meter feedback and 7 received analog meter feedback plus binary feedback by both lights and tones. All Ss were paid $.25/.1Deg.C change from baseline on each day. As previously reported, it appeared difficult to train digital temperature increases above baseline using feedback and reward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modifying supervisory practices to improve subunit safety: A leadership-based intervention model.

This article presents a leadership-based intervention model designed to modify supervisory monitoring and rewarding of subordinates' safety performance. Line supervisors received weekly feedback based on repeated episodic interviews with subordinates concerning the cumulative frequency of their safety-oriented interactions. This information identified the priority of safety over competing goals such as speed or schedules. Section managers received the same information and used it to communicate (high) safety priority. They also were trained to conduct episodic interviews to provide intermittent feedback after intervention, turning safety priority into an explicit performance goal. Safety-oriented interaction increased significantly in the experimental groups but remained unchanged in the control groups. This change in safety-oriented interaction was accompanied by significant (and stable) changes in minor injury rate, earplug use, and safety climate scores during the postintervention period. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)