Erratum to Terborg and Miller.

Reports an error in the Discussion section of the article "Motivation, Behavior, and Performance: A Closer Examination of Goal Setting and Monetary Incentives," by James R. Terborg and Howard E. Miller (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, Vol. 62, No. 1, pp. 29-39). The results of several multiple regressions were incorrectly reported as multiple correlations. In each instance in which the term multiple correlation was used, R2 should have appeared. The sentences in which the error occurred are provided. (The following abstract originally appeared in record 1979-24960-001). Some experimenters often test predictions from theories of motivation using performance outcomes as dependent variables. It is argued that observable behaviors that are likely to be affected by motivation manipulations should be used in combination with performance outcomes. Such procedures would be sensitive to differential effects of manipulations on various behaviors and would allow for investigation of relationships among behaviors and performance outcomes. For this experiment, 60 17-23 yr olds were hired to work individually on a 2-hr construction task. Ss were assigned to 1 of 2 pay conditions (piece-rate vs hourly) and 1 of 3 goal-setting conditions (no goal, quantity, or quality) resulting in a 2 x 3 crossed analysis of variance design. Dependent variables included 3 measures of effort, 3 measures of direction of behavior, and both quantity and quality performance. Method of payment affected quantity performance and effort. Goal setting affected quantity and quality performance and direction of behavior. Implications for designing and testing work motivation systems are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experimental test of the valence-instrumentality relationship in job performance.

Tested expectancy-valence models of work motivation which postulate an interactive relationship between valence of outcomes and performance-outcome instrumentality. Ss were 60 college-age respondents to an ad for part-time clerical work. Valence of job outcomes was set at 2 levels (high and low) by establishing 2 different pay rates; performance-outcome instrumentality was determined by paying wages hourly (low instrumentality) or by the piece (high instrumentality). It was hypothesized that these variables would combine interactively to affect task performance and effort. While main effects for both performance-outcome instrumentality and valence of job outcomes were observed, the predicted interaction did not appear. Results suggest that the typical conceptualization of valence as the importance an individual attaches to an outcome may be inappropriate. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of no feedback, task-related comments, and grades on intrinsic motivation and performance.

Tested the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation would be maintained after receipt of nonthreatening, task-related evaluation and undermined after repeated nonreceipt of feedback or receipt of controlling normative grades. Nine classes comprising 261 6th-grade pupils were randomly assigned to 1 of these 3 feedback conditions and were given 2 interesting tasks, 1 quantitative and 1 qualitative, on 3 sessions over 2 days. The manipulation was applied after Sessions 1 and 2, and no feedback was expected or received after Session 3. Experimental measures consisted of Session 3 performance scores and of the results of a questionnaire, given after Session 3, that tapped interest and patterns of attribution of success and effort. Results confirm the hypothesis and show significant group differences in intrinsic motivation as reflected in both performance and attitudes. It is suggested that intrinsic motivation is not merely a function of collative stimulus properties but depends on the dynamic interaction between the stimulus and the individual (i.e., on the degree to which a task continues to be perceived as challenging and as providing satisfying increments in one's knowledge about one's competence. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The significance of task significance: Job performance effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions.

Does task significance increase job performance? Correlational designs and confounded manipulations have prevented researchers from assessing the causal impact of task significance on job performance. To address this gap, 3 field experiments examined the performance effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions of task significance. In Experiment 1, fundraising callers who received a task significance intervention increased their levels of job performance relative to callers in 2 other conditions and to their own prior performance. In Experiment 2, task significance increased the job dedication and helping behavior of lifeguards, and these effects were mediated by increases in perceptions of social impact and social worth. In Experiment 3, conscientiousness and prosocial values moderated the effects of task significance on the performance of new fundraising callers. The results provide fresh insights into the effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions of task significance, offering noteworthy implications for theory, research, and practice on job design, social information processing, and work motivation and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Between-subjects expectancy theory research: A statistical review of studies predicting effort and performance.

A large number of between-Ss expectancy theory studies have correlated measures of employee motivation (force) to perform with measures of effort and performance. The results of these studies vary considerably. A statistical review of the studies was conducted to determine the extent to which the variance explained (the dependent variable) was a function of various characteristics of the effort and performance and of the force-to-perform measures (the independent variables). There were 160 observations, derived from 32 studies. With the use of multiple regression analysis it was found that variance explained in these studies was greater when (a) self-report or quantitative measures of effort and performance were used rather than evaluations of these variables by someone other than the S; (b) 10–25 outcomes were included in the force measure rather than a greater or smaller number of outcomes; (c) outcome valence was numerically scaled with positive numbers only, and the scale values were described in terms of desirability rather than importance; and (d) the force measure contained either no assessment of expectancy or an assessment that confounded expectancy and instrumentality. These variables accounted for 42% of the variance in the results obtained in the studies reviewed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy on effort and performance.

Used survey methodology to test an expectancy-valence model of work motivation with 70 male and 76 female Post Office employees in a training program to sort mail. The model predicted self-reported effort fairly well, but correlations with supervisory ratings of effort and performance were lower. Of the 3 components of the model, valence of job outcomes was by far the best single predictor. Support was given to 1 of the 2 multiplicative relationships posited by the model. Implications for future testing of expectancy-valence models with survey methodology are discussed, especially for the measurement of instrumentality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The motivational components of goal setting.

Examined the relationships among goal setting, monetary incentives, 2 indexes of motivation (i.e., effort and direction of behavior), and performance. 60 17-19 yr olds were hired to work on a 1-wk job in a simulated company. Results suggest that goal setting and monetary incentives were related independently to measures of motivation and performance. Incentives, however, had no impact on whether or not Ss set performance goals. The importance of identifying the processes surrounding the effects of stated task goals and monetary incentives on performance is discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of goals and microlevel work processes to performance on a multipath manual task.

This laboratory experiment used real-time observation to examine the relationships among goals, work processes, and quantity and quality outcomes using a simple multipath assembly task. Trained observers were able to reliably and accurately document work processes used to perform the task, supporting the use of real-time observation for documenting microlevel task strategies. Results show that (a) work processes were affected by goal content (quantity vs. quality); (b) goal form (gradually difficult vs. fixed and difficult) did not influence outcomes or processes used; (c) work processes and personal goals completely mediated the prediction of quantity outcomes and partially mediated quality outcomes; (d) process-only goals produced a greater number of process changes than outcome goals but led to poorer performance; and (e) outcome goals had a lagged effect on performance. The implications for goal-setting theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Participative goal-setting: Social, motivational, and cognitive factors.

Examined 3 explanations of why participation in goal setting may lead to increased performance—the social factor of group discussion, the motivational factor of involvement in goal setting, and the cognitive factor of information. A 2?×?2?×?2 experimental design (low and high levels of group discussion, involvement, and information) was used to study 96 predominantly male white collar employees (aged 23–58 yrs) who worked on a simulated personnel selection task. Results indicate that the social and motivational factors of participation increased performance quantity, incidental learning, goal acceptance, group commitment, and satisfaction. The motivational and cognitive factors significantly contributed to performance quality but the cognitive factor did not significantly affect performance quantity and work attitudes. It is suggested that a combination of the 3 factors leads to the highest level of performance. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of group goals, task component complexity, effort, and planning on group performance.

Tested a model asserting that goal difficulty and task component complexity influence group performance by affecting the effort exerted by group members, the amount and quality of their planning, and the timing of their planning (preplanning vs in-process planning). Hypotheses derived from this model were tested in a 2?×?2 experimental design. 56 groups of 4 students each worked for 15 min building Tinkertoy structures. Results show that group-goal difficulty influenced group performance through effort; task component complexity influenced performance through the amount of planning performed by group members and the level of effort invested in their work; and the quality of the group's planning process also influenced group performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culture and achievement motivation.

Analyzes 3 strategies for determining when and under what conditions persistence, choice, and variation in performance occur in the study of motivation. The 1st strategy relates to the role of personality in motivation. The 2nd strategy suggests that situational variables play a major role in achievement motivation, and the 3rd strategy specifically identifies both personality and situation as simultaneously critical variables in the analysis of achievement motivation. The study of cross-cultural motivation is discussed and an ethnographic approach is suggested, particularly in work with varied cultural groups. It is concluded that achievement and achievement motivation should be understood in terms of the sociocultural context in which they are found. (73 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Praise, involvement, and intrinsic motivation.

In this experiment, we examined the relation between content of praise, type of involvement, and intrinsic motivation. College students were introduced to a hidden-figure task in either an ego-involving (i.e., testlike) or task-involving (i.e., gamelike) manner and then received either ability-focused, effort-focused, or no praise for their performance. As predicted, task involvement increased intrinsic motivation relative to ego involvement, and ability praise increased intrinsic motivation relative to effort praise or no praise. Furthermore, praise and involvement interacted so that subjects who received effort praise were relatively more intrinsically motivated under task-involving than ego-involving conditions, whereas those who received ability praise were relatively more motivated under ego-involving than task-involving conditions. Also, the higher levels of intrinsic motivation were accompanied by a choice of higher level of challenge and better performance at a related but more complex task. Finally, a significant Sex?×?Praise interaction was found, reflecting that women tended to display more intrinsic motivation in the no-praise condition than in the two praise conditions, whereas men showed the reverse pattern. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of the stability and persistence of the K?hler motivation gain effect.

The current paper reports the findings of an experiment designed to investigate the persistence of motivation gains in small groups. The current study had participants work on a conjunctive task, where they believed that their performance was highly instrumental for the group to perform well. Building on prior work on the K?hler effect, although motivation gains became smaller over time, these gains in effort still remained statistically significant across several work trials. Moreover, the attenuation of the K?hler effect was found to be moderated by the stability of group membership. More specifically, as compared with people who worked with the same partner (i.e., closed groups), gains in effort were found to be more robust for participants who worked with several different partners (i.e., open groups). The current findings help fill an important gap in the motivation gains literature by demonstrating that motivation gains in groups can persist across multiple work trials. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of leader behaviors on subordinate performance and satisfaction: A laboratory experiment with student employees.

Four groups of 12 participants were hired to code videotaped group interactions using the Bales coding system (R. F. Bales, 1950). Each of the 4 groups experienced different leader behaviors of either high or low consideration in conjunction with either high or low initiating structure. Results indicate that subordinates did not perceive the leader manipulations as different but that these manipulations caused differences in quantity and quality of work. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal orientation, self-regulation strategies, and job-seeking intensity in unemployed adults.

At Time 1 (T1), the authors surveyed 277 unemployed adults using measures of human capital, goal orientation, self-regulation (emotion control, motivation control, work commitment), and job-seeking intensity. At Time 2 (T2), 4 months later, 155 participants indicated their reemployment outcomes in number of job interviews and number of job offers. Using T1 data, the authors tested the predictors of job-seeking intensity and whether self-regulation mediated between goal orientation and job-seeking intensity. Using T1 and T2 data, they tested for predictors of reemployment outcomes and whether job-seeking intensity mediated the relationship between T1 antecedent variables and the reemployment outcomes. Learning goal orientation and self-regulation predicted job-seeking intensity, and self-regulation mediated between learning goal orientation and job-seeking intensity. Job-seeking intensity did not mediate the relationship among human capital, goal orientation, and self-regulation variables and reemployment outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of positive affect on the components of expectancy motivation.

The influence of positive affect on expectancy motivation was investigated in 2 studies. The results of Study 1 indicated that positive affect improved people's performance and affected their perceptions of expectancy and valence. In Study 1, in which outcomes depended on chance, positive affect did not influence people's perceptions of instrumentality. In Study 2, in which the link between performance and outcomes was specified, positive affect influenced all 3 components of expectancy motivation. Together, the results of Studies 1 and 2 indicated that positive affect interacts with task conditions in influencing motivation and that its influence on motivation occurs not through general effects, such as response bias or general activation, but rather through its influence on the cognitive processes involved in motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task difficulty, cardiovascular response, and the magnitude of goal valence.

Studied the impact of expected task difficulty on anticipatory cardiovascular (CV) responsiveness and the anticipatory reactivity under difficult task conditions in 64 female undergraduates. Ss performed an easy, moderately difficult, or extremely difficult memory task to earn a small incentive for good performance. CV and subjective measures were taken immediately prior to task performance. Both systolic blood pressure (SBP) responses and ratings of goal attractiveness were nonmonotonically related to expected task difficulty, with the most pronounced SBP elevations and highest goal attractiveness in the moderately difficult task condition. CV response measures revealed a strong positive association between systolic and diastolic pressure (but not heart rate) change in the easy condition, positive relationships among measures in the moderately difficult condition, and no significant correlations in the extremely difficult condition. Subjective measures of arousal were not affected by task difficulty. Principal findings are discussed in terms of J. W. Brehm's theory that motivation varies as a nonmonotonic function of the difficulty of goal attainment. Intercorrelations among CV response variables are considered in terms of their possible indication of the mechanisms underlying blood pressure changes associated with variations in motivation. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recovery, well-being, and performance-related outcomes: The role of workload and vacation experiences.

On the basis of theoretical assumptions regarding resource gain and loss (S. E. Hobfoll, 1998), the authors used a longitudinal study to examine effects of vacation on well-being and performance-related outcomes. University employees (N = 221) completed measures of well-being (health complaints and burnout) and performance-related outcomes (self-reported task performance and effort expenditure) 1 week before and 2 days and 2 weeks after vacation and measures of workload 2 days after vacation. Specific vacation experiences (positive and negative work reflection, relaxation, mastery experience, and nonwork hassles) were assessed during vacation. Results showed changes in well-being and self-reported effort expenditure from before to after vacation, revealing vacation effects and partial fade-out effects. In addition, vacation experiences and workload significantly predicted some of the outcomes. The authors discuss applicability of the theoretical approach in the context of vacation and fade-out effects, implications for future research on recovery processes, and practical implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring psychological uncertainty: Verbal versus numeric methods.

The authors argue that alternatives to the traditional numeric methods of measuring people's uncertainty may prove to hold important advantages under some conditions. In 3 experiments, the authors compared verbal measures involving responses such as very likely, and numeric measures involving responses such as 80% chance. The verbal measures were found to show more sensitivity to various manipulations affecting psychological uncertainty (Experiment 1), to be better predictors of individual preferences among options with unknown outcomes (Experiment 2), and to be better predictors of behavioral intentions (Experiment 3). Results suggest that numeric measures tend to elicit deliberate and rule-based reasoning from respondents, whereas verbal measures allow for more associative and intuitive thinking. Given that there may be many types of situations in which human decisions and behaviors are not based on deliberate and rule-based thinking, numeric measures may misrepresent how individuals think about uncertainty in those situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)