The influence of sex-role stereotypes on evaluations of male and female supervisory behavior.

Examined the way sex-role stereotypes influence evaluations of male and female supervisory behavior. 134 male and 24 female undergraduates and 83 male and 15 female bank supervisors were asked to read 1 of 6 versions of a supervisory problem (with either a male or female supervisor and male, female, or mixed subordinates), and evaluate the effectiveness of 4 supervisory styles. Results indicate that sex-role stereotypes do influence evaluations of supervisory effectiveness for some, but not all, of the supervisory styles. Findings are discussed in terms of the potential negative consequences of sex-role stereotypes for supervisory behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and validation of the Supervisory Styles Inventory.

Conducted a series of studies to develop and validate the Supervisory Styles Inventory (SSI) with parallel versions for supervisors and trainees. The instrument and validation procedures were based on a conceptual model of interrelated sources of variability among supervisors. Four separate analyses consistently revealed 3 factors among the perceptions of heterogeneous samples of trainees and experienced supervisors, which suggests that supervisory style is multidimensional. Scales constructed from these factors—Attractive, Interpersonally Sensitive, Task Oriented—demonstrated robust reliabilities and construct validity. In one study, SSI scales discriminated within and between expert supervisors with different theoretical orientations working with the same supervisee. These results were consistent with other evidence that a highly task-oriented style is endorsed by cognitive-behavioral supervisors, a highly interpersonal style by psychodynamic and humanistic supervisors. Furthermore, these supervisory styles seem to be differentially related to trainees' level of experience—supervisors are more task oriented with beginners, more attractive and interpersonally sensitive with interns. All 3 styles were strongly associated with trainees' reported willingness to work with different model supervisors and satisfaction with supervision. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' assumptions regarding the severity, causes, and outcomes of behavioral problems in preschoolers: Implications for referral.

91 female and 9 male preschool teachers (average age 34 yrs) rated severity, need for referral, long-term outcome, stability, and importance of constitutional and environmental determinants for case vignettes describing 3 syndromes in children: aggression, hyperactivity, and withdrawal. Sex and age (3? and 5? yrs) of the described child were systematically varied across Ss. Results indicate little evidence of sex bias in Ss' evaluations of the behavior problems and show that Ss viewed behavior problems as more transient in younger children. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between supervisors' and trainees' cognitive styles and the supervision process.

33 beginning counseling practicum students and their supervisors rated their supervisory relationship and satisfaction with supervision; supervisors also evaluated their trainees. Ss' cognitive styles were determined through the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory, Counselor Evaluation and Rating Scale, and individual Likert scales were used as measures of the independent variables. Trainees' scores on certain indices (most notably the Sensing–Intuition index) were related to supervisors' perceptions of the interpersonal nature of their relationship, supervisors' satisfaction with trainees' performances, and supervisors' evaluations of trainees. On the other hand, supervisors' cognitive styles were not related to the independent variables. Cognitive style similarity between supervisor and trainees on specific MBTI scales was related to mutual perceptions of their interpersonal relationships. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.

Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence is found for both the presence and absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-stereotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally oriented style and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizational studies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic in the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were defined as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically, women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences in social behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attachment processes in the supervisory relationship: An exploratory investigation.

How do relational characteristics of clinical trainees and supervisors influence the supervisory relationship? Following suggestions that attachment theory might shed light on this question, the authors asked doctoral-level psychology interns (N = 87) to complete an online survey about attachment processes and supervision experiences. Findings indicated that perceived supervisor attachment style was significantly associated with supervision task and bond. Regardless of their own attachment style, participants reporting secure supervisors rated the supervisory bond higher than participants reporting insecure supervisors. Results of path analyses suggested that parental indifference, compulsive self-reliance, and perceived supervisor attachment style may be particularly important in shaping the supervisory alliance. Implications for training and supervision are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex bias and managerial evaluations: A replication and extension.

248 male supervisors rated 290 male and 272 female store managers, and 35 female supervisors rated 37 male and 38 female store managers; all Ss were with the same organization. Results show that female store managers were rated higher than male store managers by their supervisors. It is concluded that unfair treatment of women, to the extent that it does exist, does not seem to be a major factor in assessing managerial job performance. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Whither the bias: The female client's "edge" in psychotherapy?

Tested the hypothesis that, along several dimensions, women may be favored as psychotherapy clients by examining ratings of the process-relevant interpersonal characteristics and gross outcome expectancies for 72 new male and 92 new female clients (mean age 41 yrs). Eight male and 8 female therapists (mean age 36 yrs) completed a questionnaire that assessed clients on interpersonal evaluation and interpersonal control dimensions and included ratings of client's social skills, expected treatment success, expected termination conditions, and expected duration of treatment. Results show that, as hypothesized, males were ascribed more negative interpersonal characteristics and poorer social skills than females. Males were also rated higher on a composite "controllingness" variable. There was a significant client sex difference in expected duration of treatment (with females expected to stay longer), but no differences were found in expectancies regarding premature termination or treatment success. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisor experience level on planning and in-session supervisor verbal behavior.

Examined the effects of supervisor experience level on presession planning and in-session supervisor verbal behavior. 30 supervisors representing no, low (1? to 3 yrs), and high (4 to 25 yrs) levels of experience (mean ages 27.3, 28.7, and 35.8 yrs, respectively) listened to a 30-min audiotaped counseling interaction and then recorded thoughts and strategies for supervision in a 30-min planning session. Ss then conducted a 30-min supervision session with the counselor. Analyses of audiotapes from the planning and supervision sessions revealed no significant differences between the 3 levels of supervisory experience in planning statements. However, significant differences were observed in the actual supervision session, with low- and high-experience Ss being similar to each other and different from the no-experience group on several dependent measures. Results also indicate that the counselor rated the low- and high-experience Ss more positively than the no-experience Ss. No relation was observed between statements generated during the planning session and those occurring during supervision. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance of male and female children, adolescents and adults on spatial tasks that involve everyday objects and settings.

Administered 9 spatial tasks to 52 male and 52 female children (aged 7–9 yrs), 30 male and 33 female adolescents (aged 18–19 yrs), and 46 male and 48 female undergraduate (adult) Ss. Eight of the tests involved stimuli and settings with which Ss would have everyday experience. Significant sex differences were observed on 2 of the 9 tasks: estimating the length of a floor and identifying embedded figures. Adults performed better than other age groups on the embedded figures task and a wall height estimation task. In those cases where sex differences were observed, the effect sizes were well below .100, suggesting the magnitudes of sex differences were minimal. The fact that no sex differences were found on 7 or the 9 spatial tasks allows, at most, the statement that males perform better than females on some spatial tasks. There is no justification for the global statement that males excel in spatial abilities. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Judgments of chronological age: Adult age and sex differences.

62 male and 137 female undergraduates and 76 male and 93 female Ss (mean age = 71.3 and 71.6 yrs, respectively) judged the ages of males and females portrayed in sets of 27 photographs. Results demonstrate the operation of judgmental assimilation and contrast principles in determinations of chronological age, with females exhibiting greater extremity of judgments than males. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thirty years later: Attitudes toward the employment of older workers.

Replicated W. K. Kirchner and M. D. Dunnette's (see record 1955-03161-001) study on attitudes toward older workers with 71 male and 5 female hourly employees (aged 18–61 yrs) and 22 male supervisors (aged 27–63 yrs) of a nonunion manufacturing plant. Ss completed a questionnaire that was nearly identical to the one administered in the Kirchner and Dunnette study. Results are similar to those obtained in the earlier study: Hourly workers held more positive attitudes toward older employees than did supervisors, and attitude score correlated strongly with the age of hourly workers but not with the age of supervisors. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex effects in evaluating leaders.

Investigated the extent to which sex role stereotypes influence the evaluation of leadership behavior. 225 male and 57 female business students were administered 1 of 2 versions of a questionnaire containing 4 stories, each depicting a leadership style based on 1 of the following leadership dimensions: initiating structure, consideration, production emphasis, and tolerance for freedom. Managers' names were altered in the 2 versions to indicate males or females. Answers to 8 evaluative questions for each of the leadership styles confirm the hypothesis that sex has an effect on evaluations of managerial behavior, although the effect varied for different leadership styles. Female managers received more positive scores than male managers on the consideration style. Initiating structure behavior was valued more highly when engaged in by male managers. Manager sex had no significant influence on evaluations of the production emphasis and tolerance for freedom styles. Sex of S effects also were noted on all but the consideration style. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal interaction and supervisor perception in counselor supervision.

20 dyads of masters-level counseling practicum students (aged 23–52 yrs) and their supervisors (aged 28–51 yrs) were audiotaped during 1 supervisory session. The counselor trainee's and supervisor's verbal interaction in supervision was rated using a 15-category system for analyzing supervisor–teacher interaction. These scores were correlated with the trainee's perceptions of the supervisor on the interpersonal influence characteristics of expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness, as measured by a supervisor rating form. 45 Pearson correlations between measures were calculated, with 8 comparisons reaching the .05 level of significance. Significant relationships were found between some categories of verbal behavior and 1 or more perceived supervisor characteristics. It is concluded that a moderate relationship exists between the nature of the interaction in supervision and perceptions the counselor forms about the supervisor. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hysteria scale elevations in low back pain patients: A risk factor for misdiagnosis?

Examined the nature of elevations on the Hysteria scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) in low back pain patients by comparing Harris-Lingoes subscale elevation patterns in 53 female (average age 43.2 yrs) and 40 male (mean age 33.5 yrs) low back pain patients and 61 female (average age 31.1 yrs) and 41 male (average age 31.4 yrs) normal controls. Subscales reflecting somatic complaints were more powerful predictors of diagnostic status than subscales with nonsomatic context. Both overlapping and nonoverlapping items on the Hysteria and Hypochondriasis subscales contributed significantly to the discrimination between patients and controls. However, nonoverlapping items were less notable contributors to the discriminant function in women than in men. The data suggest that more evidence than a Conversion V profile is required for the diagnoses of hysterical dynamics in association with somatic complaints. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in mathematics: A function of parental support and student sex typing?

The relationship of sex differences in mathematics to both differential patterns of parental involvement in their children's education and children's sex typing (considering quantitative areas as male domains and verbal areas as female domains) was investigated among 35 female and 173 male extremely mathematically and 48 female and 44 male extremely verbally talented young adolescents (average age 13.7 yrs) and a comparison group, with mathematics and verbal ability determined by the College Board Scholastic Aptitude Test and Test of Standard Written English (SAT). Ss and their parents completed questionnaires 2? yrs after the SAT assessment. Results indicate that patterns of parental support did not vary as a function of child's gender. Fathers tended to be perceived to be somewhat more involved with their children's mathematical activities and mothers with their verbal activities, although these perceptions were not strong. Fathers were not more involved with mathematically talented children than with verbally talented ones, nor was the reverse found for mothers. In addition, children were not strongly sex typed. Moreover, children's sex typing did not relate to perceived parental behaviors or to SAT scores. It is suggested that these aspects of socialization did not relate to current sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability, which have been shown to relate to later sex differences in achievement in quantitative areas. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategic self-presentation in supervision.

A counselor trainee with a defensive self-presentational style is one who takes credit for the client's improvement or blames the client for deterioration. Conversely, a trainee with a counterdefensive style attributes improvement to the client or accepts personal responsibility for deterioration. 80 experienced (1–25 yrs) supervisors heard a tape of a simulated supervisory session in which a female trainee summarized her ongoing treatment of a moderately depressed client. Ss heard the trainee (a) describe how, recently, the client's depression had either lifted (improvement condition) or worsened (deterioration condition); and (b) attribute this change either to her own efforts or to the client. Ss then completed several measures, including an abbreviated version of the Counselor Rating Form. The counterdefensive trainee was judged to be somewhat more socially skilled than the defensive trainee, but the defensive trainee was rated as significantly more self-confident. Regardless of the trainee's explanation, however, when the client's depression lifted, the trainee was viewed as significantly more competent, self-confident, expert, and attractive than she was when the client's depression worsened. Ss assigned more responsibility to the client for improvement than for deterioration, but this pattern was reversed for the trainee and supervisor. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)