A survey of anthropometry and physical accommodation in ergonomics curricula

The size and shape of users are an important consideration for many products and environments. Designers and engineers in many disciplines must often accommodate these attributes to meet objectives such as fit and safety. When practitioners have academic training in addressing these issues, it is typically through courses in Human Factors/Ergonomics (HF/E). This paper investigates education related to physical accommodation and offers suggestions for improvement. A survey was conducted wherein 21 instructors at 18 universities in the United States provided syllabi for 29 courses, which were analysed to determine topics related to anthropometry and resources used for the courses. The results show that within the US, anthropometry is covered in the majority of courses discussing physical ergonomics, but important related concepts were often omitted (e.g. digital human modelling, multivariate accommodation and variability across global populations). Curricula could be improved by incorporating more accurate anthropometry, multivariate problems and interactive online tools.

Practitioner Summary: This paper describes a study investigating collegiate ergonomics courses within the US in the area of physical accommodation. Course schedules and texts were studied for their treatment of several topics related to accommodating the spatial requirements (anthropometry) of users. Recommendations are made for improving course curricula.     

Role of ergonomics in the transfer of technology to industrially developing countries

Technological development has contributed to economic growth and social progress as well as a reduction of many sources of occupational accidents, injuries and stresses. However, advanced technology has also brought new sources of work stress and injuries. Industrially developing countries (IDC) have tended to try to achieve economic growth and development by importing technology designed for IDC. However, because of several complex technical, cultural and socio-economic factors, this policy has not been always successful. Inappropriate technology transfer has led to many work environment and productivity problems. Consideration of ergonomics in the choice and utilization of the transferred technology can help to create a good fit between technology, technology users and the operating environment. Application of ergonomics is, however, not widely spread in most IDC. Ergonomics input will create the appropriate working environment in which people are safe and motivated to participate and can better utilize company resources for increasing system productivity, reliability and availability.     

Cognitive ergonomics: it's all in the mind

In this paper a distinction is made between classical ergonomics as dealing with the quality of working and cognitive ergonomics as dealing with the quality of work including the joint system products. It is argued that classical ergonomics can be seen as embracing a dualism, where the effects of work on the body are considered separately from the effects of work on the mind. This continues the mechanistic tradition of Western psychology. The aim of cognitive ergonomics is to describe (1) how work affects the mind, as well as (2) how the mind affects work. Work is all in the mind in the sense that the quality of work depends on the person's understanding of the situation (goals, means, constraints) and in the sense that the design of a worksystem depends on the designer's understanding, in particular the conceptualization of the people in the system. In cognitive ergonomics, the reliability of performance—and in particular the reliability of cognition—become central issues. The differences between classical and cognitive ergonomics are illustrated by considering two typical areas: risks at work and human-computer interaction. It is concluded that classical and cognitive ergonomics represent two complementary views of work that must be combined to meet the challenges of present day work environments.     

A survey of ergonomics in Czechoslovakia

A survey of the historical development of ergonomics, and current research and training in this discipline, in Czechoslovakia. The report follows a series of visits to scientists in academic and research in institutions in the summer of 1978.     

A test battery related to ergonomics of protective clothing

Specialised protective clothing, such as that worn by firefighters, is usually tested only to standards which give requirements for the materials used (e.g. EN469). However, this testing often neglects the effect the manufacturing process of the garment has on the material properties, the effects of clothing design, sizing and fit, as well as the interaction of the clothing with other components of the standard gear for the profession. Such effects can only be tested by looking at the protective gear as a whole. This paper deals with methods to do additional testing on protective garments with firefighter clothing as example. In other words, methods which go beyond EN469. Human subject tests for physiological load, heat protection, ergonomic design, loss of performance, rain/moisture protection and conspicuity/visibility of the clothing are described and proposed for evaluation of protective clothing in general and for further development of standards on firefighters' clothing.     

A survey of tools and methods used by certified professional ergonomists

A survey of Certified Professional Ergonomists (CPEs) was conducted to gather information on the types of basic tools, direct and observational measurement techniques, and software used by practitioners. The motivation for the survey was to better understand what types of tools and methods practitioners use, their opinions of these tools, and to potentially gain an understanding of the constraints or preferences that influence this selection. Reasons for using or not using a selection of tools were also surveyed. Of 578 surveys that were delivered to CPEs and Associate Ergonomics Professionals, 308 were returned for a response rate of 53%. The respondents tended to be biased towards physical ergonomics, as the survey primarily focused on this area of ergonomics. A high percentage of respondents reported using tape measures, video cameras, stopwatches and digital cameras. The most commonly used observational methods were those involving manual materials handling, whereas the most commonly used direct measurement tools were pinch and grip dynamometers and push/pull gauges. The frequency and type of checklists, software, and anthropometric data used are summarized.     

Enhancing the impact of ergonomics interventions

The aim of this paper was to provide recommendations for ergonomists involved in project design and evaluation. Twelve research and consultancy projects involving ergonomics interventions in a variety of settings in The Netherlands were analysed to identify factors important to success. Projects included participatory and non-participatory cases. Eight factors were identified for successful project design and for demonstrating project effectiveness.     

Developing national ergonomics standards for Thai industry

This paper reports activities initiated by the Thai Government and its Technical Committee on Ergonomics Standards (TC 887) to develop national ergonomics standards for Thai industry. The main objective is to promote ergonomics practice by disseminating recommended ergonomics principles and applications to various industries so that employers and/or management become aware of essential design concepts and work methods that help to improve workplace conditions and enhance workers’ safety. Initially, the paper discusses the history of ergonomics in Thailand and its progress during the past 30 years. Ergonomics research activities and industrial projects that have been conducted are also summarized. Government activities to develop national ergonomics standards are then described in detail. Steps already taken to achieve such goals include participating as a P-member of the ISO/TC 159, conducting national surveys on ergonomics education and ergonomics specialists, and drafting ergonomics standards.

Relevance to industry

It has been well recognized in developed countries that ergonomics principles help to increase workers’ productivity and enhance workplace safety. For industrially developing countries such as Thailand in which ergonomics is not well known, it is essential that national ergonomics standards be developed and disseminated to employers and/or management. Furthermore, national standards need to be compatible with international standards to allow Thai manufacturing companies to be competitive in international markets.     

Forty years of IEA: some reflections on the evolution of ergonomics

This paper is the IEA Presidential Address to the 1997 IEA Triennial Congress in Tampere, Finland. The evolution of ergonomics prior to and after the foundation of the International Ergonomics Association in 1957 is reviewed. Ergonomics has broadened from considering work activities to include all types of human activities. The recent introduction of computers has changed many of the premises for work and leisure activities, and cognitive ergonomics is now as important as the ‘biological’ emphasis that was mentioned in the founding documents of IEA. Ergonomics is a science of design. There are three important targets for ergonomics design activity: to improve safety, productivity and operator satisfaction. A systems approach is presented to define how these parameters interact and how they can be measured.     

Justifying investments in industrial ergonomics

This paper describes current research work aimed at developing an evaluation process as well as an accounting framework specifically tailored to industrial ergonomics and which concentrate on the following economic issues related to ergonomic or health and safety costs: identifying and classifying health and safety costs within a comprehensive cost classification; studying the behavior of health and safety costs; allocating health and safety costs to cost objects.     

Development of an ergonomics guideline for the furniture manufacturing industry

Industry-specific ergonomics guidelines are an important component in the four-pronged approach to workplace ergonomics currently pursued by the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The American Furniture Manufacturers Association has taken the initiative of developing such a guideline for its members. The result of this effort is the "AFMA Voluntary Ergonomics Guideline for the Furniture Manufacturing Industry", a document that includes basic information about ergonomics program components as well as a compilation of work-proven, ergonomics best practices as submitted by members of the furniture manufacturing community. This guideline was developed through an industry-research-government partnership and made strategic use of the unique attributes that each sector brought to this effort. Outlined in this paper are some of the characteristics of this partnership including, the roles played by each, the different motivations for pursuing the guideline, the challenges faced during the development of the document, the successes experienced in this process, as well as a proposed outline for measuring the effectiveness of this effort. The hope is that this summary, and some of the lessons learned contained herein, would be helpful to others considering the prospect of developing such a guideline for their industry.     

Improving engineering design- contributions of cognitive ergonomics

Engineering design is analysed in terms of design problem-solving. Engineering designers of differing productivity hardly differ in mental abilities, especially their tested intelligence. However, they differ in their strategies concerning the analysis of requirements and of the problem, in their search for general principles solving the relevant problem, and in the procedures used for developing specific solutions. Experimental and interview results stress that the interrelationship of thinking and sketching, as well as other kinds of an early low-cost prototyping are of crucial importance for the efficiency of the problem-solving procedure and the result. Possibilities for assisting design problem-solving and to improve the training of designers are discussed.     

Video analysis in cognitive ergonomics: a methodological perspective

The object of this paper is to discuss the methodological issues associated with using video analysis in the evaluation of Human-Computer Interaction. It is proposed that the mapping between low-level observed events and the high-level goals of the usability evaluation ultimately determines the success of this research technique. The paper firstly addresses the advantages of using video as a data-capture medium in the context of usability evaluations, and secondly, evaluates the use of alternative data capture devices. The process of conducting video analysis is then described. The methodological issues that arise in employing this technique are presented in a format consistent with the execution of any empirical investigation: research design, scoring, data analysis and interpretation of results. The reader is alerted to certain methodological problems associated with the use of video analysis as a means of data collection. The conclusion is drawn that video analysis provides a very powerful data source for the study of human performance in cognitive ergonomics and usability evaluations provided that human factors practitioners attend to the methodological requirements imposed by this technique.     

Corporate ergonomics programme at Ford Motor Company

The use of ergonomic principles in automobile assembly and manufacturing operations has become an important part of a comprehensive health and safety process as well as an integral part of the engineering systems. Ford Motor Company has developed an ergonomics process to manage issues related to injury and illness (e.g., musculoskeletal diseases) and to ensure the appropriate use of human resources on the plant floor. The ergonomics programme uses joint labour and management teams to identify and evaluate jobs and develop and implement solutions. This paper summarises the efforts of the Ford Motor Company in implementing and maintaining the programme. Key strategies are outlined that provide important links to internal organisational units that are critical to fully utilise the ergonomics process. In addition, the paper outlines differences between proactive and reactive efforts and shows the importance of using the information generated by the initiatives for process improvement.     

One approach for an ergonomics program in a large manufacturing environment

This paper describes the approach the Boeing Company's Everett Division chose to take during development of their ergonomics program. The program covers both factory and office environments, but the approach used in each area is different. The goal of the program was to develop a systematic process efficiently utilizing the available resources. Lessons learned during the three years of this program are also discussed.     

Knobology in use: an experimental evaluation of ergonomics recommendations

The scientific basis for ergonomics recommendations for controls has usually not been related to active goal-directed use. The present experiment tests how different knob sizes and torques affect operator performance. The task employed is to control a pointer by the use of a control knob, and is as such an experimentally defined goal-directed task relevant to machine systems in general. Duration of use, error associated with use (overshooting of the goal area) and movement reproduction were used as performance measures. Significant differences between knob sizes were found for movement reproduction. High torques led to less overshooting as opposed to low torques. The results from duration of use showed a tendency that the differences between knob sizes were reduced from the first iteration to the second iteration. The present results indicate that the ergonomically recommended ranges of knob sizes might differently affect operator performance.     

The Ergonomics Society Society's Lecture 1995 Making ergonomics a world-wide concept

Since its formal inception more than half a century ago, ergonomics has time and again demonstrated that it has a niche among the field of scientific disciplines aspiring to make the world a better place. How far has it really gone? Can we now lay claim that it is indeed well-known and accepted? Are the benefits it purports to deliver realized in all parts of the world? About two-thirds of human beings live in the Third World. This is where poverty and inequality are relatively more common. This is where much work is still degrading and far from being humane. This is also where ergonomics has yet to make its presence felt in practice.

This paper attempts to show that ergonomics can and will become a globally applied science. However, it has to make its contribution to the Third World prevalent and long-lasting. The paper focuses on the current state of ergonomics in the Third World, the so-called Industrially Developing Countries (IDCs).