The quality of environmental impact statements and environmental impact assessment practice in Bangladesh

This paper investigates the quality of environmental impact statements (EISs) and gives us an understanding about the performance of environmental impact assessment (EIA) practice in Bangladesh. EIA has been formally practised in Bangladesh since 1995.However, no study has yet been conducted on the quality of EISs. This study fills this gap. This empirical study shows that the quality of EISs in Bangladesh is ‘just satisfactory’ only. A significant proportion of EISs (34%) are still unsatisfactory. Finally, possible factors affecting the quality of EISs are examined and measures to improve the quality of EISs are recommended. The findings will be useful to EIA practitioners and other stakeholders in Bangladesh. This study will also provide a general guideline for other developing countries with similar socio-economic context.     

Development of environmental management program in environmental impact assessment reports and evaluation of its robustness: an Indian case study

The degree of robustness of environmental management program in the EIA reports of 56 green-field and 28 brown-field environmentally approved projects was found to be low, revealing that it is not considered seriously by the EIA consultants and the decision-makers. EMPg, akin to EIA follow-up, specific to a project at a given location, is the most important output of the EIA process especially for the developing countries where priority is on the economic development by way of development projects and the EIA process has inherent weaknesses. A meticulously prepared, implemented, operationalized, monitored, periodically audited and continually improved EMPg in different life-cycle phases of a project could possibly offset limitations of the EIA process. Considering lack of guidelines available on the development of EMPg, elaborate guidelines are proposed. EMPg could be prepared as a separate document to facilitate development of project manual. TOR for brown-field projects need a totally different approach. Amending the currently followed EIA process and introducing an additional stage of mandatory approval of EMPg, and third party audit would improve its robustness.     

Evaluation of the environmental impact assessment system in Egypt

A formal environmental impact assessment (EIA) system was introduced in Egypt through Environmental Protection Law No. 4 of 1994. This paper evaluates the EIA system in Egypt by using both ‘systemic’ and ‘foundation’ evaluation criteria. The methodology is based on an investigation of EIA legislation, a review of guidelines and relevant documents, and interviews with EIA practitioners. The main factors affecting EIA best practice in Egypt are the limited numbers of local experts, inadequate public consultation, lack of environmental data, weak follow-up, and the absence of long- term land-use plans. Recommendations to strengthen the system include improving capacity building, implementing an effective EIA consultants' accreditation system, ensuring effective public participation and access to EIA reports, applying systematic environmental impact statement (EIS) review criteria and promoting environmental awareness.     

Reflecting on the preparation of guidelines for strategic environmental assessment (SEA) of nuclear power programmes

In this paper, the ‘guidelines for strategic environmental assessment (SEA) of nuclear power programmes’ by the International Atomic Energy Agency are introduced. This includes a reflection on their preparation process and contents as well as consultation feedback. The preparation process started with two meetings of international nuclear and SEA experts and the creation of a writing team which prepared an initial set of draft guidelines. This was followed by various consultation exercises. The guidelines are organised along an allocation of tasks within a tiered system of energy related policies, plans, programmes and projects. Whilst consultation showed that there was agreement on the approach to most issues, no consensus was present on the extent to which economic and social issues should be fully integrated with environmental considerations. Strong support was given to the way quality review is designed, going beyond focusing on the main SEA reports to cover procedural and participatory aspects next to elements of a comprehensively tiered decision making framework, the ability to influence decisions as well as the quality (expertise and experience) of those involved in conducting the SEA.

Abbreviation: SEA: Strategic Environmental Assessment; EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment; IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency     

An evaluation of environmental impact assessment in Eritrea

This paper reviews the environmental impact assessment (EIA) system in Eritrea against a set of evaluation criteria. It analyses the institutional aspects of EIA, the process of EIA, together with other features of the system. The review indicates that the current EIA system in Eritrea meets eleven of the 18 evaluation criteria, partially meets three and fails to meet four. The major weaknesses relate to; the lack of legal provision for EIA; inadequacy of resources; failure to make the EIA findings a key aspect of decision-making; and the lack of formal provision for Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). To strengthen the current EIA system in the country, therefore, investment in training and continuing professional development in EIA for different stakeholders is needed. The most urgent priority is the establishment of a sound legal basis for EIA.     

On the usefulness of guidelines and instructions for environmental assessment – a qualitative study of the helpfulness perceived by Polish practitioners

Guidelines and instructions for Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental Assessment (together referred to as EA here) are developed to improve the quality of legal requirements’ implementation and to support EA procedure accomplishment. However, to date, it has not been checked whether they are useful for practitioners. Therefore, the aim of the study underlying this paper was to verify, based on the experience of Polish EA experts, whether guidelines and instructions are useful in their everyday work. A qualitative study comprising of a questionnaire survey and interviews tested whether (1) EA practitioners know and use the Polish and EU guidelines, (2) how EA practitioners evaluate the validity and usefulness of such instructions, and (3) in which areas there is a lack of instructions and guidelines. The results show a low level of knowledge of national and EU handbooks. Those guidelines focusing on legal procedures, road investments and designing animal passageways are considered to be the most useful. Moreover, practitioners indicate that EU guidelines should be translated into Polish. Most important for practitioners is the linking of guidelines with the EA procedure, so that they can become a platform for dialogue of all stakeholders.     

A proposal for further strengthening science in environmental impact assessment in Canada

We observe ongoing weaknesses in the quality of science underpinning environmental impact assessment (EIA) in Canada. This is frustrating because approaches for strong scientific practice in EIA were published decades ago. A major failing has been the lack of scientific support from outside the EIA practitioner community. We argue for a re-conception of science associated with EIA that includes a rigorous scholarship of application inside EIA and a vigorous scholarship of integration outside it. Cases of exemplary organizational structures and science applications in the Canadian forest sector are given. To turn EIA from the often bitter battleground of shallow impact debates to an enterprise of strong accumulation of effects knowledge, we urge the relevant communities of researchers and practitioners to become embedded communities of practice and reform the way science contributes to EIA.     

Environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment in the UK after leaving the European Union

Abstract

The United Kingdom has voted to leave the European Union and, until the terms of the ‘Brexit’ are negotiated, this has led to considerable uncertainty over the future practice of environmental impact assessment (EIA) and strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in the UK. Here we show that multiple obligations exist outside the scope of the EU which mean that EIA and SEA will continue to be required in the long term, but that their future compliance with the Directives remains unclear. We consider three scenarios for Brexit and present the implications of each; these are: signing up to the European Economic Area (EEA) Agreement; membership of the European Free Trade Association, but not EEA, or negotiate a separate agreement. The implications of no longer being subjected to the obligations of the Directives under some scenarios are discussed and include opening the door for increasing diversity of application across the regions of the UK, and the probability of raised screening thresholds so as to reduce the burden of assessment on developers.     

Assessing the utility of environmental factors and objectives in environmental impact assessment practice: Western Australian insights

Environmental factors and objectives are formally identified during the scoping stage of environmental impact assessment (EIA) to structure and focus individual assessments. Environmental factors are broad components of the environment, while objectives set the desired outcome for a specific factor. This research assesses the utility of environmental factors and objectives in EIA practice based upon a combination of literature review and interviews with 21 EIA practitioners from Western Australia. Further to providing focus and structure for EIA, practitioners also use environmental factors and objectives for decision-making throughout the process. The majority of practitioners also note that factors and objectives are value adding and useful to their EIA practice. Due to their inherent subjective natures, interviewees noted a lack of consistency regarding how to meet the objectives and challenges in determining the significance of impacts on a factor. Identified opportunities to enhance use of objectives and factors in EIA included provision of more guidance, especially criteria or standards to apply and improve knowledge sharing between EIA stakeholders.     

Evaluation of the environmental policy and impact assessment process in Ethiopia

This paper reviews the Ethiopian Environmental Policy with focus on the institutional set-up and implemented Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures. The evaluation of EIA is done against a set of evaluation criteria. Specific legal provision for EIA application is well documented and the Environmental Protection Authority exists as the legal body. A chronological evaluation of the establishment of the environmental policy reveals that this process was more a result of donor requirements than of political will. Inconsistency on institutional level, non-existence of complementarities between institutions, and of environmental and investment policy and proclamations, contradict the enforcement of the EIA law. Furthermore lack of multidisciplinary experts, missing environmental baseline data, and lack of monitoring and post-auditing adversely affect the effectiveness of the EIA law. The paper concludes that, besides other important measures, the Ethiopian EIA law needs to be adapted.     

Assessing the impact of strategic environmental assessment

This paper examines the impact of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) – its direct impact on policies, plans and programs (PPPs) and its indirect and longer-term impacts. Criteria for assessing SEA's impact are developed and applied in the Canadian context based on a survey of SEA practitioners, and the perceived opportunities and challenges to realizing the full impact of SEA explored. Results indicate that SEA does have a direct impact on PPPs, but its indirect impacts are either constrained or difficult to distinguish from an agency's normal policies, practices and innovations. Amongst the most significant challenges to realizing the indirect impacts of SEA is the lack of shared vision for SEA by those responsible for implementation, and incongruences between the need for rapid results by way of PPP approval versus the long-term commitment required to realize many of the benefits of SEA. Indirect impacts require more explicit consideration at the outset of the SEA design process than what is currently the case if the benefits of SEA are to be fully recognized.     

A review of the use of environmental offset as a policy mechanism in the environmental impact assessment process (EIA) in Western Australia

This paper reviews the use of offsets in the Western Australian (WA) environmental impact assessment (EIA) process. First, an overview and analysis of offsets as a policy tool in EIA is provided, noting that it has its origins in the practice of ecological restoration and uses the principle of the no net loss (NNL). Second, the implementation of WA offset policy is discussed noting the emergence of two new types of offsets in response to the uncertainty associated with some major resource projects. The first type is a ‘residual risk’ offset, which is provided in recognition of the uncertain risks associated with the proposal. The second type is a ‘banked’ offset, which is called upon only in the event that negative environmental impacts occur. Finally, it is proposed that these ‘offsets for uncertainty’ could be used more broadly in EIA where there is significant uncertainty of impacts provided the residual risk is considered acceptable.     

Multi-project environmental impact assessment: insights from offshore oil and gas development in Brazil

Despite being adopted worldwide, environmental impact assessment (EIA) is under pressure in many countries, while perceived (rightly or wrongly) as an ineffective and inefficient process. Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is thought to help address some of EIA’s shortcomings, but it is absent in many jurisdictions and sectors. In this paper, we argue that multi-project EIA can, in some contexts, simultaneously deliver greater effectiveness and process streamlining. To illustrate our claim, we present a case study from offshore petroleum production in Brazil, where the development of the pre-salt giant reserves is being licensed through a multi-project EIA approach, in a non-SEA planning environment. The analysis provides interesting insights on the strengths and challenges of that strategy, focusing on five aspects of practice: cumulative impacts, efficiency, approach to authorizations, follow-up and political issues. Proper scoping was found to be essential to consistent EIA processes and shorter review times. Finally, we suggest that multi-project EIA approach should be revisited by practitioners and regulators to identify opportunities for deployment, especially in jurisdictions where strategic assessments are not in place.     

Development of cumulative impact assessment guidelines for offshore wind farms and evaluation of use in project making

The offshore wind energy sector in the United Kingdom (UK) has grown rapidly since the first turbine generators were installed in 2000: by 2016 there were over 1400 installed turbines with combined capacity of 5.1 GW. The sector is considered by UK Government as essential to the development of a low carbon economy and to meeting binding targets on carbon reduction and renewable energy generation. The Crown Estate, responsible for licensing development on the sea bed around the UK, has held three rounds of licensing since 2000 for wind developments. Some of the projects in the first two rounds suffered long delays due to uncertainty of project level impacts, particularly cumulative impacts. A number of key stakeholders identified a need for cumulative impact assessment (CIA) methodology to be developed that was definitive and endorsed by regulators and industry to aid unblocking barriers to delivery. This paper explores the background to the development of the guidelines and how they were ‘co-created’ with industry and regulators. We evaluate to what extent they have been used to shape and develop practice.

Abbreviations: CIA: cumulative impact assessment; EU: European Union; GW: gigawatt; MW megawatt; NERC: Natural Environment Research Council; NGO: Non Governmental Organisation; OWF: offshore wind farm; PINS: Planning Inspectorate; RED: Renewable Energy Directive; RUK: Renewables UK; SPA: Special Protection Area; TCE: The Crown Estate; TWh: terra watt hours; UK: United Kingdom.     

Trends in consultation and public participation within environmental impact assessment in Kenya

The objective of this study was to document trends in public participation within environmental impact assessment (EIA) in Kenya, using a Consultation and Public Participation Index (CPPI) developed for the analysis of EIA Study Reports submitted to the Environment Authority between 2002 and 2010. Results indicated that public participation remained relatively low, with the highest score of 1.65 in 2010, out of a possible score of 5. Scores for individual dimensions within the index fluctuated during the study period, with participation methods and type of participants scoring the highest, following increased emphasis by the Environment Authority on the conducting and reporting of public participation. This was followed by venue, notification and language used, in that order, which were often not reported, and, when reported, choices per dimension were limited. This is the first time this index has been used, yet it serves as a good starting point to evaluate public participation within EIA.     

The politics of strategic environmental assessment indicators: weak recognition found in Chinese guidelines

The choice and use of indicators is not only technical and science-led, but also a value-laden social process, and thus concerns public participation and political judgement. This article approaches the Chinese strategic environmental assessment (SEA) indicator system from a science–policy interface perspective and aims to: (1) contribute to the general recognition of indicators functioning in SEA; and (2) analyse, through a Chinese case study, to what extent national guidelines address this science–policy interaction. The overall finding is a strong emphasis on technical/science aspects in the Chinese SEA guidance, and a weak explicit recognition that policy plays a role in choosing and using indicators. Recent development, however, indicates a growing recognition of the politics involved and thus also leads to greater involvement of stakeholders.     

Ecological assessment: an initial evaluation of the ecological input in environmental impact assessment reports in Bahrain

Ecological assessment forms a fundamental part of environmental impact assessment. The quality of ecological input in 15 Bahraini EIA reports concerning coastal and marine developments produced between 1996 and 2004 was evaluated using adopted criteria. The overall quality indicated that eight reports were assessed as borderline quality, and seven reports were found to be of poor quality. Major shortcomings included limited new ecological surveys, inadequate evaluation of impacts, neglecting cumulative and long-term impacts, and failing to address adequately mitigation and monitoring measures.     

Assessing the impact of requirements review on quality outcomes

Studies demonstrate that differences in how product development organizations and product realization organizations interpret requirements can lead to poor‐quality outcomes. Other research shows that in comparison to communicating requirements inside an organization, communicating requirements in buyer‐supplier relationships can be more difficult and has been identified as a source of rework, poor quality, and increased costs. The Raytheon Company identified misaligned requirements interpretation between the company and its suppliers as a source of program performance inefficiency and therefore instituted a collaborative requirements review process between the company and its critical suppliers. This study examines the impact of these requirements reviews on quality outcomes and demonstrates that these reviews result in positive quality outcomes. In addition, correlation analysis shows a relationship between conducting the requirements reviews and a reduction in failure modes that are characterized by high detection and remediation effort. Considered broadly, our methodology can be applied to other program performance improvement efforts to test their impact on quality outcomes and to reveal related failure modes.     

Decision criteria for the identification of alternatives in strategic environmental assessment

The European Union Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive requires the assessment of likely significant effects on the environment of implementing plans or programmes and reasonable alternatives. While Irish SEA regulations and guidelines emphasise rigour and objectivity in the assessment of alternatives they have little to say on the actual identification of alternatives. Therefore, criteria should be established that would aid decision-makers in the identification of alternatives appropriate to the tier of decision-making. A methodology is set out in this paper for identifying generic SEA alternatives for a proposed plan or programme. Specifically, the methodology includes a set of alternatives identification criteria. The outputs from this methodology will help focus on the identification of more sustainable alternatives for SEA.     

Distribution, correlation and risk assessment of selected metals in urban soils from Islamabad, Pakistan

Urban soil samples were analyzed for Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Pb, Sr and Zn by atomic absorption spectrophotometric method. Multivariate statistical approach was used to study the apportionment of selected metals in the soil samples during summer and winter. The degree of contamination along with the geoaccumulation index, enrichment factor and contamination factor was also evaluated. In water-extract of the soil samples, relatively higher levels were noted for Na, Ca, K, Fe, Mg, and Pb with average concentrations of 56.38, 33.82, 12.53, 7.127, 5.994, and 1.045 mg/kg during summer, while the mean metal levels during winter were 76.45, 38.05, 3.928, 0.627, 8.726, and 0.878 mg/kg, respectively. In case of acid-extract of the soils, Ca, Fe, Mg, Na, K, Mn and Sr were found at 27,531, 12,784, 2769, 999.9, 737.9, 393.5, and 115.1 mg/kg, during summer and 23,386, 3958, 3206, 254.6, 1511, 453.6, and 53.30 mg/kg, during winter, respectively. Most of the metals showed random distribution with diverse correlations in both seasons. Principal component analysis and cluster analysis revealed significant anthropogenic intrusions of Cd, Pb, Co, Cr, Cu, Li, Zn and Na in the soils. Geoaccumulation indices and contamination factors indicated moderate to heavy contamination for Pb and Cd in the soils, while enrichment factor exhibited significant enrichment (EF > 5) of Cd, Pb, Ca, Co, Li, Mn and Zn by anthropogenic activities. Overall, on the average basis, considerable degree of contamination (C_deg > 16) was observed in both seasons, although it was higher in winter. Present metal levels were also compared with those reported from other areas around the world.