Optical analysis of gel dosimeters: Comparison of Fricke and normoxic polymer gels

The dosimetry method based on optical analysis of gel layers has been experienced utilising both Fricke and polymer (normoxic) gels. The aim of the work was that of investigating the potentiality of a normoxic polymer gel and of performing a further verification of the reliability of Fricke gel dosimeters. Optical absorbance was measured, both with a spectrophotometer and by imaging light transmittance detected with a CCD camera. The results of the study of sensitivity, linearity of the response and reproducibility of the polymer gel dosimeter have shown acceptable performances, except for doses below 2 Gy. The linearity range extends up to 20 Gy. On the other side, dose images and profiles have shown noticeable differences when compared to those calculated or measured with ionisation chambers or Fricke gel dosimeters. Such Fricke dosimeters have given further confirmation of their reliability.     

A way forward for the development of an exposure computational model to computed tomography dosimetry

A way forward for the development of an exposure computational model to computed tomography dosimetry has been presented. In this way, an exposure computational model (ECM) for computed tomography (CT) dosimetry has been developed and validated through comparison with experimental results. For the development of the ECM, X-ray spectra generator codes have been evaluated and the head bow tie filter has been modelled through a mathematical equation. EGS4 and EGSnrc have been used for simulating the radiation transport by the ECM. Geometrical phantoms, commonly used in CT dosimetry, have been modelled by IDN software. MAX06 has also been used to simulate an adult male patient submitted for CT examinations. The evaluation of the X-ray spectra generator codes in CT dosimetry showed dependence with tube filtration (or HVL value). More generally, with the increment of total filtration (or HVL value) the X-raytbc becomes the best X-ray spectra generator code for CT dosimetry. The EGSnrc/X-raytbc combination has calculated C_100,c in better concordance with C_100,c measured in two different CT scanners. For a Toshiba CT scanner, the average percentage difference between the calculated C_100,c values and measured C_100,c values was 8.2%. Whilst for a GE CT scanner, the average percentage difference was 10.4%. By the measurements of air kerma through a prototype head bow tie filter a third-order exponential decay equation was found. C_100,c and C_100,p values calculated by the ECM are in good agreement with values measured at a specific CT scanner. A maximum percentage difference of 2% has been found in the PMMA CT head phantoms, demonstrating effective modelling of the head bow tie filter by the equation. The absorbed and effective doses calculated by the ECM developed in this work have been compared to those calculated by the ECM of Jones and Shrimpton for an adult male patient. For a head examination the absorbed dose values calculated by the ECM developed by Jones and Shrimpton overestimates up to three times the absorbed dose to brain compared to the ECM developed in this work. The effective dose calculated by the ECM of Jones and Shrimpton was 26% greater than effective dose calculated by the ECM developed in this work.     

Ultra fast electron beam X-ray computed tomography for two-phase flow measurement

Electron beam X-ray CT is a new technique for a fast measurement of multiphase flows with frame rates of 1000 images per second and more. It gives, in principle, quantitatively accurate images of the flow at high spatial resolution and it is non-intrusive since moderately radiation absorbing vessel walls can be penetrated by X-rays. However, on the road to a technical realisation of such a technique within a computed tomography system many problems have to be solved. As a first prototype for scientific flow measurement studies, we devised and built a fast scanned electron beam X-ray tomography scanner. The scanner consists of an electron beam unit that can be operated at up to 150 kV acceleration voltage and up to 65 mA electron beam current, with the required electron optics for beam adjustment, beam focusing and beam deflection unit and a fast circular CZT detector comprising 240 elements of 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm active pixel area. X-ray radiation is produced on a circular water cooled tungsten target. The CT system achieves up to 7000 frames per second with a spatial resolution of 1 mm. First two-phase flow experiments have been carried out on gas-water flows in bubble columns. Further, a vertical test section made of titanium alloy has been installed at the TOPFLOW facility and will be used in future to study the evolution of two-phase gas-water pipe flow at high pressures and temperatures.     

基于光学CT的三维凝胶剂量验证技术的研究进展

放射治疗（简称放疗）是治疗肿瘤的重要手段,剂量验证是放疗法定的质量保证手段。随着三维调强等放疗技术的不断发展和对病人健康的重视,传统的二维静态等剂量验证手段难以应对新型精确放疗技术所带来的三维复杂分布剂量验证的挑战。基于光学CT的三维凝胶剂量验证技术将凝胶剂量学与光学CT技术相结合,通过凝胶剂量计来固定剂量信息、光学CT扫描重建三维剂量分布,并据此绘制等剂量曲线,提供了一种三维剂量分布的高分辨率快速验证手段。本文对此项技术的背景、理论与研究进展进行了综述。此技术尚处于研究早期,仍有一系列科学问题需进行深入探讨,具有很大的研究和发展潜力。     

辐射变色薄膜剂量计的研制

以尼龙为基材、六羟基乙基副品红氰化物（hexahydroxyethylpararosanilinecyanide,HPR-CN）为染料研制辐射变色薄膜剂量计。文章描述了该剂量计的工作原理、配方、物理性能及其剂量学性能测试结果。实验测试表明,自制的辐射变色薄膜剂量计具有较好的剂量学性能。文章对自制的辐射变色薄膜剂量计的性能与FWT-60辐射变色薄膜剂量计的性能进行了比较。     

胸部X射线CT扫描中的放射防护最优化

X射线螺旋CT机不同扫描条件下,用有机玻璃均匀模体测量多层扫描的CT剂量指数值,用均匀水模体测量CT值的均匀性及其噪声。比较了不同扫描条件下,患者肺部肿块影及片状影的CT图像质量。结果表明：曝露量为40、25、7．5mAs时的CT剂量指数值分别不超过曝露量为115mAs时的40％、30％和15％。本文用CT扫描“优化因子”作为图像质量、病人所受剂量的综合评价指标,实现了CT扫描条件优化的定量分析。虽然,随X射线曝露量减少,均匀模体断层内CT值噪声增加、正常图像百分率下降,但从图像质量、病人剂量综合考虑,X射线胸部CT扫描的曝露量宜取25mAs。     

Studies on new neutron-sensitive dosimeters using an optically stimulated luminescence technique

The neutron response of detectors prepared using α-Al₂O₃:C phosphor developed using a melt processing technique and mixed with neutron converters was studied in monoenergetic neutron fields. The detector pellets were arranged in two different pairs: α-Al₂O₃:C + ⁶LiF/α-Al₂O₃:C + ⁷LiF and α-Al₂O₃:C + high-density polyethylene/α-Al₂O₃:C + Teflon, for neutron dosimetry using albedo and recoil proton techniques. The optically stimulated luminescence response of the Al₂O₃:C + ^6,7LiF dosimeter to radiation from a ²⁵²Cf source was 0.21, in terms of personal dose equivalent H_p(10) and relative to radiation from a ¹³⁷Cs source. This was comparable to results obtained with similar detectors prepared using commercially available α-Al₂O₃:C phosphor. The H_p(10) response of the α-Al₂O₃:C + ^6,7LiF dosimeters was found to decrease by more than two orders of magnitude with increasing neutron energy, as expected for albedo dosimeters. The response of the α-Al₂O₃:C + high-density polyethylene/α-Al₂O₃:C + Teflon dosimeters was small, of the order of 1% to 2% in terms of Hp(10) and relative to radiation from a ¹³⁷Cs source, for neutron energies greater than 1 MeV.     

头部CT扫描时受检者剂量研究

应用热释光剂量和头部CT剂量监测模体,在日立W-1000型机器上测定了模体中心和距体表1cm处,单层和多层扫描时的剂量分布。给出了单层扫描时,散射线所致剂量与扫描中心距离的拟合方程,分析了用不同积分区间计算CT剂量指数（CTDI）时对结果的影响。为今后进行广泛的CT受检者的剂量监测,推广使用国际电离辐射防护和辐射源安全基本标准（IBSS）推荐的CT受检者剂量指导水平提供统一标准。并对CT剂量监测中一些值得关注的问题进行探讨。     

The effect of pitch and collimation on radiation dose in spiral CT

1 Introduction Spiral computed tomography (CT) was intro- duced in clinical practice in 1980s. Its distinctive characteristic is continuous data acquisition and con- tinuous tube rotation with high speed while simulta- neously translating the patient through the gantry.[1] Owing to these functions the spiral CT possesses the ability to scan an entire organ volume within a single breathhold. Thus, the anatomical section is contiguous and therefore the reliable demonstration of small le- sions…     

X射线背散射透射一体成像系统设计

介绍了X射线检测技术在安检领域的应用情况,讨论了背散射成像系统组成结构。提出2种可经过一次扫描获得背散射图像与透射图像的一体机模型,并且搭建了相应的实验平台,完成了透射和背散射成像获取实验。特别是在双源结构平台上对藏匿在箱包中的TNT、硝酸铵爆炸物与水作为检材的透射、背散射图像内容做了对比说明;分析了单源并联一体机透射图像分辨率低的问题,为进一步改进背散射透射一体机图像信号噪声比和图像分辨率指出解决方法。     

Computed Tomography with an X-Ray Transmission Pencil Beam Scanner

The pencil beam x-ray transmission computed tomographic (CT) scanner was the first type of scanner to be applied to radiologic medicine. It utilizes a rotate and traverse scanning mechanism. The scanner provides 2 dimensional images of a cross-section of the human body and relates an arbitrary CT number scale to the linear x-ray attenuation coefficient. The scanner can discriminate small differences in x-ray attenuation. The Ohio-Nuclear Delta Scanners are examples of this type. Use of hardware processors significantly decreases image reconstruction time after collection of the raw image data.     

FTIR and DSC studies on gamma irradiated P(VdF-HFP) fluoropolymers applied to dosimetry

Radiation effects on semicrystalline poly(fluorovinylidene-co-hexafluoropropylene) copolymer [P(VdF-HFP)] induced by high-energy irradiation were investigated. Films with 150 μm thickness were irradiated with gamma doses ranging from 1.0 kGy to 3.0 MGy. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to follow the radio-induction of new molecular bonds. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was employed to study the crystalline degradation of the irradiated samples. P(VdF-HFP) copolymers have fluorinated monomers [-CF₂-CF-CF₃-] randomly added to the [-CH₂-CF₂-] main chain of PVdF homopolymer. In this case, the [-CF₃-] molecular bonds are branched to the main chain. There is an increasing interest about the effect of high gamma radiation dose on the P(VdF-HFP) radiolysis, once it could enhance some of their already known interesting properties such as biomedical applications and electrostrictive transducers/actuators. FTIR spectroscopic data revealed two optical absorption bands at 1730 and 1754 cm⁻¹ whose intensities are unambiguously related to gamma delivered dose ranging from 0.0 to 1000 kGy. Fading analysis has demonstrated no loss of signal until 11 months after irradiation. DSC and XRD data revealed a continuous decrease in both the melting latent heat and crystalline dimensions for doses ranging from 250 to 3000 kGy. Because of the low fading and the linear behavior with respect to delivered gamma doses of the absorption band at 1754 cm⁻¹, P(VdF-HFP) copolymers are good candidates for being explored for high gamma dose dosimetry application.     

A Comparative Study of the Effect of Calibration Conditions on the Water Equivalence of a Range of Gel Dosimeters

Gel dosimeters are of increasing interest in the field of radiation oncology as the only truly three-dimensional integrating radiation dosimeter. There are a range of ferrous-sulphate and polymer gel dosimeters. To be of use, they must be water-equivalent. On their own, this relates to their radiological properties as determined by their composition. In the context of calibration of gel dosimeters, there is the added complexity of the calibration geometry; the presence of containment vessels may influence the dose absorbed. Five such methods of calibration are modelled here using the Monte Carlo method. It is found that the Fricke gel best matches water for most of the calibration methods, and that the best calibration method involves the use of a large tub into which multiple fields of different dose are directed. The least accurate calibration method involves the use of a long test tube along which a depth dose curve yields multiple calibration points.     

Optimization of X-ray target parameters for a high-brightness microfocus X-ray tube

Parameters of a transmission-type X-ray target have been optimized for a microfocus X-ray tube with an emphasis on maximizing the intensity of X-rays generated from the target while reducing the X-ray focal spot size. Monte Carlo simulation code MCNPX was used for the calculation of X-ray intensity generated from the X-ray tube. The calculation shows that the target thickness plays a dominant role in the enhancement of X-ray intensity. The optimum thickness to get maximum X-ray intensity for a given beam current was derived from the calculation for a broad range of electron energies from 30 keV to 150 keV. In addition, stability of a transmission-type target against localized thermal loading, which is attributed to the electron beam impinging on a micron-sized target region, was also investigated by the calculation of the temperature distribution within the target. From the analysis, we present the maximum allowable electron-beam power loading for a stable operation of the transmission-type target at different incident electron beam energies.     

Development of a new X-ray source using backscattered X-ray with the use of a cold cathode

The development of an intense X-ray source using backscattered X-ray produced using an advanced electrode configuration is described. The electrodes were composed of field emitters deposited on a wire mounted on a perforated plate as the cathode and a copper plate as the anode. Electrons from these emitters collided with the copper plate and X-ray was generated at collision points. The backscattered X-ray in the direction normal to the electron trajectory through a hole in the anode escaped from the vacuum chamber through a beryllium window. Continuous and characteristic X-rays were detected at an applied voltage lower than that of a conventional X-ray source from 3.0 to 9.4 kV, respectively. Moreover, the X-ray dosage measured with a survey meter reached 0.95 mSv/h at 5.0 kV of applied voltage. The transmission images of three types of material used as an X-ray source for the X-ray imaging system indicate three advantages; low power consumption, focal point controllable by adjusting applied voltage, and photographable motion picture of X-ray transmission.     

低纹波微型X射线管高压电源的研制

国内研发的X射线高压电源体积普遍较大,不适合微型X射线管的要求。针对微型X射线管的特点,本文设计了一种低纹波、小体积高压电源,其输出电压在0~-40kV范围内可调。电源的逆变电路采用罗耶谐振电路,并引入UCC2973控制芯片以提高其效率。在电源的升压部分设计了高频变压器、双向倍压整流电路,以进行两级升压。通过电阻分压后取样反馈的方式进行稳压。电路工作在线性状态,无开关噪声。测试结果表明,电源的输出电压纹波低于0.3%、稳定度优于0.12%/10h,可满足微型X射线管的需求。     

水模型鉴定PET-CT同机融合图像配准误差

本文是应用水模型模拟PET-CT实际检查检测同机融合图像的配准误差。首先制备含59.2 MBq[氟18]-氟代脱氧葡萄糖的水模型,静置80 min,采集2D PET图像20 min,然后经形态学处理与阈值法得水的CT与PET图像,把两组图像的质心位置经线性回归方程拟合,求配准误差。并用Alignment软件测量CT与PET成像系统配准误差4次。得出水PET图像质心较CT图像在X轴偏移(0.011×层数+0.63)mm;在Y轴质心偏移(0.022×层数+1.35)mm,PET图像须经平移且X轴须旋转(0.06±0.07)、Y轴旋转(0.01±0.08)才能与CT图像配准。所以检查床的负载与分布不影响本PET/CT仪系统的配准校正,测量坐标轴旋转角度的随机误差易使PET与CT配准产生偏差。     

A direct current glow discharge plasma source for inner surface modification of metallic tube

A dc glow discharge plasma source was developed for inner surface modification of metallic tubes with an inner diameter of 10 mm. A tungsten wire of 30 μm thick was stretched inside the tube to form coaxial electrodes. DC glow discharge plasma was generated inside the tube by applying a negative high dc voltage to the tube. It was found that the length of the cylindrical plasma bulk depends linearly on the applied voltage. The electron excitation temperature of Ar plasma was measured as 12830 ± 550 K by optical emission spectroscopy method. As a preliminary application, diamond-like carbon (DLC) films were deposited onto the inner surface of stainless steel tube of 100 mm in length and 10 mm in inner diameter by using CH₄/Ar mixture with 40% CH₄ at 40 Pa pressure. The chemical structure of the DLC film deposited on the substrate was analyzed by Raman spectroscopy. The integrated intensity ratio (I_D:I_G) was obtained as 1.62 from the Raman spectra. The thickness of the DLC film deposited on the substrate was estimated as 1.5 μm by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation.     

Low temperature radioluminescence spectra of CsI:Tl

Four radioluminescence bands associated with thallium at 400, 488, 550 and 593 nm, plus an intrinsic band at 340 nm have been observed in the temperature range 280-25 K in CsI:Tl. The temperature dependence of the emission intensity is obviously different from each band to another. The 488, 550 and 593 nm bands are associated with the decay of different type thallium perturbed V_K-e excitons, respectively, and the 340 nm band is related with the unperturbed H-F excitons. It is suggested that V_K centres are also involved in the emission of the 400 nm photons. The re-absorption of the 488 nm signals and the resulting increase of the 593 nm band have been discussed. At 25 and 290 K, the relative RL intensities between the four thallium associated bands do not change with the X-ray tube voltage from 15 to 40 kV. But the intensity of the 340 nm band increases faster than that of the thallium related bands when the tube voltage increases.     

Hydrolysis kinetics of lead silicate glass in acid solution

Hydrolysis kinetics of the lead silicate glass (LSG) with 40 mol% PbO in 0.5 N HNO₃ aqueous acid solution was investigated. The surface morphology and the gel layer thickness were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP) were used to determine the composition of the gel layer and the aqueous solution, respectively. The silicon content of the dissolution products was determined by using weight-loss data and compositions of the gel layer and the solution. The kinetic parameters were determined using the shrinking-core-model (SCM) for rate controlling step. The activation energy obtained for hydrolysis reaction was Q_che = 56.07 kJ/mole. The diffusion coefficient of the Pb ions from the gel layer was determined by using its concentration in solution and in LSG. The shrinkage of the sample and the gel layer thickness during dissolution process were determined.