Effects of touch on self-exploration and the therapeutic relationship.

Used 3 response measures to compare touch and no touch in an initial interview: the Depth of Self-Exploration Scale (used for rating clients' self-exploration), the Relationship Inventory (completed by both counselors and clients), and the Relationship Questionnaire (completed by clients). Ss were the 1st 20 female undergraduates seeking personal counseling. A 24-yr-old male and a 32-yr-old female graduate student served as counselors. Significant differences at the .01 level were found between touched and nontouched Ss for depth of self-exploration: Ss who were touched engaged in more self-exploration than Ss who were not touched. No significant differences were found between touch and no-touch groups on the measures of perception of relationship. There were no significant differences between the 2 counselors and no interaction effects for any of the response measures. (30 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor statements on rater judgments of client self-exploration.

Examined the influence of counselor statements on rater judgements of client self-exploration. Audiotaped segments of counseling interviews that included both counselor and client statements and identical autiotaped segments, but with the counselors' statements deleted, were rated on client self-exploration by separate groups of raters (totaling 20 counseling graduate students). A significantly positive correlation was found between the 2 sets of ratings. With 1 exception, no significant differences were found for each segment. Finally, no differences were found between ratings for segments, unedited and edited, in which counselors were functioning at high levels of accurate empathy and ratings in which counselors were functioning at low levels of accurate empathy. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trained clients as reinforcers of counselor behavior.

Trained undergraduates to discriminate understanding statements from nonunderstanding statements. These ss met with 5 male and 5 female beginning counselors for a series of 3 or 4 interviews. During the interview, clients verbally reinforced each statement they judged to be understanding, while 2 raters judged understanding by electrically marking tape recordings of the interviews. Based on the independent observations of client and 2 raters, beginning counselors were judged as having increased their understanding statements. The experiment indicates that understanding statements made by counselors can be made a function of the number of reinforcing statements emitted by trained clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of perceived etiology attribution similarity on client ratings of counselor credibility.

An experimental design was used to test the hypothesis that clients who perceived their counselors as holding etiology attributions similar to their own would rate their counselors' credibility higher than clients who perceived their counselors as holding dissimilar attributions. 40 undergraduate volunteers participated as clients in counseling role-plays with 11 graduate student counselors. At the end of the 3-session counseling analogue experience, each client was exposed to a mock counselor questionnaire on which the counselor's etiology attributions were manipulated to either agree or disagree with the client's etiology attributions. Results indicated that clients in the similarity of etiology attribution condition rated their counselors to be more credible sources of help than did clients in the dissimilarity of etiology attribution condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparative perceptions of counselor behavior: A replication and extension.

Investigated comparative perceptions of counselor behavior. 40 counseling interviews were rated by 40 16–50 yr old participating clients, 9 counselors (professional staff members), and 5 observers (staff psychologists) along social influence and client-centered dimensions at a Midwestern community mental health center. The Counselor Rating Form (CRF) and Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory ere used to yield measures of these dimensions. Results support the hypothesis that clients would rate their counselors highest on each variable relative to counselor self-ratings and observers' ratings of counselors. Correlational analyses revealed a high degree of relationship among the social influence and client-centered dimensions for client and observer ratings. There was greater agreement between clients and observers than between clients and counselors or counselors and observers on 4 dimensions. Data suggest the existence of a common factor of perceived counselor behavior. The utility of the social influence constructs as measured by the CRF was supported, and this area of study appears to have direct relevance to research in applied professional settings. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of cross-cultural counseling.

The relationship between cultural dissimilarity and the duration, satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness of counseling was studied in the context of 70 actual treatment dyads that varied as to the race of the counselor and the client (White or non-White). White counselors provided fewer sessions than non-White counselors, and non-White clients expressed lower levels of overall satisfaction with counseling, regardless of counselor race. No differences in counseling effectiveness were observed as measured by counselor and client ratings of perceived relief, understanding, and coping. Relative to other treatment dyads, however, White clients seeing White counselors attributed their change more to counseling than to other, outside factors. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of Counselor Characteristics: Contributions of Counselor Sex, Experience, and Disclosure Level.

Strong proposed that expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness may enhance the counselor's ability to influence clients. In a counseling analogue the present study assessed the effects of counselor sex (male or female), experience (expert or nonexpert), and self-disclosure level (high or low) on perceived expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. Results indicated that (a) expert counselors were rated more expert than nonexpert; (b) female experts were rated more expert than female nonexperts, but male experts and nonexperts were not different from one another; (c) high-disclosing counselors were perceived as more attractive than low-disclosing counselors; (d) expert and nonexpert high-disclosing counselors were more attractive than expert low-disclosing counselors; (e) low-disclosing counselors were rated more trustworthy than high-disclosing counselors; and (f) low-disclosing female counselors were rated more trustworthy than high-disclosing female counselors, but male high- and low-disclosing counselors were not different from one another. Additional findings are presented, and implications of the results concerning counselor sex are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor touch on counseling outcome.

Examined the effect(s) of counselor touch on client evaluation of counseling and level of self-exploration. 25 counselors and 100 undergraduates participated. Nonverbal condition (touch, no touch), sex of counselor, and sex of client were the factors. Each S participated in a single individualized vocational counseling session to discuss their performance on the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. All 50-min counseling sessions included 6 clusters of verbal and nonverbal procedures that were administered by counselors at predetermined periods of time. Data were collected by means of questionnaires (Counseling Evaluation Inventory and Depth of Self-Exploration Scale) and audiotapes that were submitted to independent raters for analysis. Contrary to previous studies, counseling touch did not have a significant effect. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 34(3) of Journal of Counseling Psychology (see record 2008-10749-001). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft.] Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of counselor self-disclosure statements on perception of the counselor and willingness to disclose: A cross-cultural study.

Mexican and American undergraduates watched simulated interviews in which the counselor engaged in one of three forms of self-disclosure (SD) or else no SD. Although all subjects indicated that they would be most willing to self disclose to the counselor who did not personally engage in SD, Mexicans and Americans differed in how they perceived the counselors. Mexicans rated the counselor who did not engage in SD as being more trustworthy and expert than the others; Americans had no clear preference. For Mexican-American clients treated in this country, counselors may need to maintain a degree of formality that is unnecessary with American clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy": Correction to Barkham and Shapiro.

Reports an error in "Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy" by Michael Barkham and David A. Shapiro (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1986[Jan], Vol 33[1], 3-10). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1986-15306-001.) Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal influence process in real-life counseling: Investigating client perceptions, counselor experience level, and counselor power over time.

Examined the interpersonal influence process within an actual counseling context over an average of 8 sessions. Counselors were either beginning or advanced practicum students or doctoral interns (n?=?27); clients were 31 students who sought counseling at a university center. Before and after counseling Ss completed the Counselor Rating Form, the Expectations about Counseling measure, and the Counselor Perceptions Questionnaire. Results indicate that (a) the actual counselor experience level did not affect client perceptions of the counselor; (b) perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness changed over time, but not in the same direction across counselors; (c) different levels of client need did not affect clients' perceptions of counselor characteristics; and (d) counselors rated as highly attractive indicated they had more therapeutic power over clients than counselors rated as moderately attractive. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internalization of therapeutic relationships in short-term psychotherapy.

Structural Analysis of Social Behavior was used to chart the internalization of the therapeutic relationships of 48 clients in short-term psychotherapy at 2 university counseling centers. After initial and final sessions, clients reported their perceptions of counselors' actions and attitudes toward them, their own actions and attitudes toward counselors, and their intrapsychic dispositions. Results suggested clients internalized dispositions that they perceived counselors held toward them. Furthermore, results indicated that clients perceived interpersonal complementarity at the beginning but that the degree of interpersonal complementarity did not increase over time. In contrast, clients perceived a lack of interpersonal–intrapsychic complementarity early in therapy but perceived an increase in this complementarity at the end of therapy. This study proposes an integration of interpersonal and psychodynamic theories of psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clients' perceptions and evaluations of similarities to and differences from their counselors.

Forty-seven community mental health clients were asked in an open-ended format to describe the ways in which they were similar to and different from their counselors; rate how significantly these similarities and differences affected the counseling relationship; and categorize the type of effect on the counseling relationship as being either good, bad, or neutral. Results revealed that personality traits were most frequently cited as similarities. Demographic variables and personality traits were most frequently cited as differences. Both similarities and differences were rated as having primarily positive effects on the counseling relationship, with similarities having a stronger perceived impact on the relationship than differences. Methodological considerations for exploring personality-trait and demographic similarities and differences between counselors and clients are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Female counselor–client dyads: Effects of counselor age, client marital status, and intimacy level of presenting problem on perceptions of counselors.

Explored the impact of counselor age, level of intimacy of clients' presenting problems, and client marital status on perception of counselors and the counseling relationship with 48 married females (mean age 21.9 yrs) and 48 unmarried females (mean age 26.3 yrs). Ss viewed a series of 3 videotapes, which were counterbalanced for level of intimacy of client's presenting problems and depicted initial interviews between young female clients and either younger or older female counselors. After viewing each individual vignette, Ss completed a counselor rating form, a client satisfaction form, and manipulation checks for presenting problem intimacy and counselor age. Overall, differences in presenting problems and counselor age were perceived as intended. Ss' marital status was unrelated to any measures. Counselors were judged as most expert, attractive, and trustworthy when dealing with presenting problems that were least intimate. Ss anticipated greater satisfaction with younger rather than older counselors only for the least intimate presenting problem. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential helpfulness of counselor verbal response modes.

28 counselor–client dyads (analog sample consisting of 15 graduate students and faculty and 28 undergraduates) and 16 client–counselor dyads (counseling sample) rated the helpfulness of particular counselor responses in just-completed counseling sessions, using Interpersonal Process Recall. In the counseling sample, counselors also rated the helpfulness of the same responses. The responses were measured for type of response made by objective raters, clients, and counselors. Interpretations received the highest helpfulness ratings from both client and counselor. Advisements were rated as slightly more helpful than nonadvisements, and questions were rated as slightly less helpful than nonquestions. However, counselor response modes account for only a small proportion of the variance in helpfulness ratings, which points out the need for research on contextual variables and response mode subtypes. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factors related to client return rate following intake.

Examined the relationship of client sex, intake counselor sex and experience level, and the sex of the counselor to whom the client was referred to the percentages of clients returning for counseling following an intake interview. In addition, the effect on return rate of referral to another counselor vs continuation with the counselor seen at intake was examined. Results from 67 male and 74 female counseling center clients and 25 regular counseling staff indicate that clients of both sexes were significantly less likely to return when initially interviewed by male rather than female intake counselors. Further, clients referred by male intake counselors to other male counselors were significantly less likely to return than were clients seen by and/or referred to female counselors. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Helpful and nonhelpful events in brief counseling interviews: An empirical taxonomy.

To provide an empirical taxonomy of change events in counseling, 24 undergraduates described the immediate therapeutic impact of the most and least helpful responses by 12 counselors (graduate students) in 24 brief 1-session helping interviews. 86 helpful and 70 nonhelpful counselor responses were identified and described by Ss and clustered by independent judges, and these responses were rated for counselor response modes or intentions by raters, counselors, and students. Cluster analyses identified 8 types of helpful events grouped into 2 superclusters that corresponded to task and interpersonal aspects of helping interactions. The predominant cluster in the task supercluster was New Perspective; the predominant cluster in the interpersonal supercluster was Understanding. Six types of nonhelpful events were identified, the most common being misperception, negative counselor reaction, and unwanted responsibility. Event types are described in terms of the counselor actions typically associated with them. It is suggested that open questions by counselors may be more helpful than interpretations for producing insight or cognitive restructuring in clients. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male counselors' discomfort with gay and HIV-infected clients.

Examined male counselors' reactions to gay and HIV-infected clients in light of counselors' homophobia and death anxiety. After completing measures of homophobia and death anxiety, 34 male counselors viewed a videotaped, male client–actor in 1 of 4 conditions: either gay or heterosexual and either HIV negative or HIV positive. The dependent variable, counselor discomfort, was assessed through (1) the ratio of avoidance to approach verbal responses to the taped client, (2) self-reported state anxiety, and (3) recall of certain words used by the client. As hypothesized, counselors experienced greater discomfort with HIV-infected than HIV-negative clients, and counselors' homophobia predicted their discomfort with gay male clients. However, client sexual orientation did not affect counselor discomfort, and death anxiety was unrelated to discomfort with HIV-infected clients. Implications regarding countertransference and counseling were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)