Comparative study of irreversibilities in an aqua-ammonia absorption refrigeration system

Irreversibilities in components of an aqua-ammonia absorption refrigeratio system (ARS) have been determined by second law analysis. The components of the ARS are as follows: condenser, evaporator, absorber, generator, pump, expansion valves, mixture heat exchanger and refrigerant heat exchanger. It is assumed that the ammonia concentration at the generator exit is, independent of the other parameters, equal to 0.999 and at the evaporator exit the gas is saturated vapour. Pressrre losses between the generator and condenser, and the evaporator and absorber are taken into consideration. In the results the dimensionless exergy loss of each component, the exergetic coefficient of performance, the coefficient of performance and the circulation ratio are given graphically for each different generator, evaporator, condenser and absorber temperature.     

Ammonia high pressure heat pumps in food refrigeration applications

The use of the environment-friendly and natural refrigerant ammonia (R717) for industrial heat pumps is described. Compressors for higher operating pressures equivalent to 40 bar have been developed and characteristic data such as COP, performance and operating limits are specified. The operating data from two application examples are presented.     

Maximum mass flow ratio due to secondary flow choking in an ejector refrigeration system

The occurrence of flow choking in an ejector of an ejector refrigeration system (ERS) was analysed and a model for predicting the maximum flow ratio of the ejector was developed. The multi-parameter equation to calculate the mass flow ratio takes into account the performance of the primary nozzle, the flow entrainment and mixing relating to ejector geometry and operating conditions. We validated the model using the reported experimental data of refrigerant R113, R141b and steam ERS. The present model was shown to provide better accuracy compared with results obtained by applying the existing 1-D ejector theory. We discussed the application of the model and highlighted the significance of the parameters for future work.     

Performance research of self regenerated absorption heat transformer cycle using TFE-NMP as working fluids

A heat transformer is proposed in order to upgrade low-temperature-level energy to a higher level and to recover more energy in low-temperature-level waste heat. It is difficult to achieve both purposes at the same time using a conventional heat transformer cycle and classical working pairs, such as H₂O–LiBr and HN₃–H₂O. The new organic working pair, 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol (TFE)-N-methylpyrolidone (NMP), has some advantages compared with H₂O–LiBr and NH₃–H₂O. One of the most important features is the wide working range as a result of the absence of crystallization, the low working pressure, the low freezing temperature of the refrigerant and the good thermal stability of the mixtures at high temperatures. Meanwhile, it has some negative features like NH₃–H₂O. For example, there is a lower boiling temperature difference between TFE and NMP, so a rectifier is needed in refrigeration and heat pump systems. Because TFE–NMP has a wide working range and does not cause crystallization, it can be used as the working pair in the self regenerated absorption heat transformer (SRAHT) cycle. In fact, the SRAHT cycle is the generator–absorber heat exchanger (GAX) cycle applied in a heat transformer cycle. In this paper, the SRAHT cycle and its flow diagram are shown and the computing models of the SRAHT cycle are presented. Thermal calculations of the SRAHT cycle under summer and winter season conditions have been worked out. From the results of the thermal calculations, it can be found that there is a larger temperature drop when the waste hot water flows through the generator and the evaporator in the SRAHT cycle but the heating temperature can be kept the same. That means more energy in the waste heat source can be recovered by the SRAHT cycle.     

A theoretical study of a novel regenerative ejector refrigeration cycle

There has been a demand for developments of the ejector refrigeration systems using low grade thermal energy, such as solar energy and waste heat. In this paper, a novel regenerative ejector refrigeration cycle was described, which uses an auxiliary jet pump and a conventional regenerator to enhance the performance of the novel cycle. The theoretical analysis on the performance characteristics was carried out for the novel cycle with the refrigerant R141b. Compared with the conventional cycle, the simulation results show that the coefficient of performance (COP) of the novel cycle increases, respectively, by from 9.3 to 12.1% when generating temperature is in a range of 80–160 °C, the condensing temperature is in a range of 35–45 °C and the evaporating temperature is fixed at 10 °C. Especially due to the enhanced regeneration with increasing the pump outlet pressure, the improvement of COP of the novel cycle is approached to 17.8% compared with that in the conventional cycle under the operating condition that generating temperature is 100 °C, condensing temperature is 40 °C and evaporating temperature is 10 °C. Therefore, the characteristics of the novel cycle performance show its promise in using low grade thermal energy for the ejector refrigeration system.     

Performance of a packed bed absorber for aqua ammonia absorption refrigeration systemPerformance d''un matelas dispersant dans un système frigorifique à absorption à ammoniac/eau

A mathematical model of a packed bed absorber for aqua-ammonia absorption refrigeration system is presented. The model is used to predict the performance of the bed at various design and operating conditions. The governing equations and the boundary conditions are derived to predict the bed performance. A numerical integral method and an iteration scheme are used to solve the governing one dimensional, non-linear simultaneous differential equations which are subjected to three point boundary value problem. A computer program is prepared and carefully debugged to solve the governing equations with the help of some supporting equations to describe the properties of the working fluids and the heat and mass transfer coefficients in the bed. The analysis show that the absorption process is affected by the following parameters: the volumetric heat rejection model, bed height, vapor and solution flow rates to the bed and the inlet conditions; and packing material type. The effect of changing each of those parameters on the performance of the bed is studied after suggesting a model for the volumetric heat rejection from the bed. The results showed that changing the bed pressure and/or the vapor inlet temperature have negligible effect on the performance of the bed. Changing other parameters are found to affect the performance of the bed by different degrees. Also, the results show that within the present range of parameters, a bed height less than 0.7 m guarantees an absorption efficiency better than 91%.

Résumé

On présente un modèle mathématique d'un matelas dispersant dans un système frigorifique à absorption à ammoniac/eau. On utilise ce modèle pour prévoir la performance du matelas utilisant diverses conceptions et sous diverses conditions de fonctionnement. On établit des équations qui décrivent ce processus et les conditions limites afin de prévoir la performance du matelas. On utilise une méthode numérique intégrale et un schéma d'itération afin de résoudre les équations unidimensionnelles, non-linéaires, simultanées et différentielles, qui sont soumises au problème des limites à trois points. Un programme informatique est préparé et débogué afin de résoudre les équations qui gouvernent le processus étudié, avec l'aide de quelques équations supplémentaires qui décrivent les caractéristiques des fluides actifs et les coefficients de transmission thermique et de transfert d'énergie massique du matelas. L'analyse montre que le processus d'absorption est influencé par des paramètres suivants: le modèle de rejet de chaleur volumétrique, la hauteur du matelas, les débits d'écoulement de la vapeur et de la solution vers le matelas, les conditions d'entrée et le matériau dispersant utilisé. On étudie également l'influence de la variation de chacun de ces paramètres sur la performance du matelas apres avoir proposé un modèle de rejet de chaleur volumétrique par le matelas. Les résultats montrent que si on change la pression dans le matelas et/ou la température de la vapeur à l'arrivée, de tels changements ont un effet negligeable sur le matelas. Suite au changement d'autres paramètres, la performance du matelas a été modifée de diverses façons. Les résultats montrent également qu'avec les paramètres adoptés ici, une hauteur du matelas inférieure à 0,7 m assure un taux d'absorption supérieur à 91%.     

Economic biogas and cooling water rates in a lithium bromide—water absorption system

An economic analysis of the role of biogas and cooling water in a lithium bromide—water absorption system has been carried out to optimize the generator, condenser and absorber temperatures at a given evaporator temperature and solution pumping rate. The analysis has been repeated for different pumping rates (PR) to determine the optimum PR corresponding to the minimum over-all operating cost of the system. The study has also been carried out for the condition when biogas in the generator and cooling water in the absorber and condenser are supplied at equal flow-rates. It is found that the performance of the LiBr-H₂O system at equal biogas and cooling water flow-rates is about 5.988% higher than when operated at the minimum over-all operating cost, the latter being cheaper by only 2.71%. For low evaporation temperatures, use of a preheater in a LiBr-H₂O system creates a crystallization problem when operated at low pumping rates. The study has therefore been extended for a system without preheater. The parameters under study are illustrated graphically against the generator temperature. Equations to obtain the corresponding optimum condenser and absorber temperature are given. The functional relationship between crystallization limit and absorbent temperature has also been obtained. The optimum operating parameters are presented graphically.     

A method for design analysis of absorption machines

The lack of understanding of the processes taking place in some of the elements of absorption machines, as the absorber, typically results in using security values for the overall heat transfer coefficients at the design process and consequently producing oversized heat exchangers. In this study, a statistical method was employed in order to improve the design of a lithium bromide-water single effect absorption chiller. This method was based on reliable values of heat transfer coefficients and areas for the components integrating the machine. Experimental designs and variance analysis were used to measure the effects the variation of the heat exchangers areas had on the performance of an absorption machine. The conclusions extracted from this study will allow a redistribution of the total heat transfer area among the heat exchangers, which will in turn result in a significant improvement of the COP. Cooling capacity, external flow rates and design temperatures were kept constant and used as input data for the design process.     

Simulation of a solar driven aqua-ammonia absorption refrigeration system Part 1: mathematical description and system optimization

A theoretical thermodynamic analysis was performed on an aqua-ammonia refrigeration (AAR) cycle coupled to a solar water heating system using CPC-collectors and augmented with auxialiary energy. Thirteen AAR cycles were considered in the search for the maximum coefficient of performance. Also investigated was the exergetic performance of the AAR cycle. The adopted temperature and mass flow rate control strategy on the storage tank-auxiliary heater-AAR generator loop ensured operation of the refrigeration systems at design conditions. Consequently, the ratio between the pumps' electrical power and the designed evaporator heat transfer rate was kept to a minimum.     

Characteristics of Voorhees refrigerating machine with hermetic piston compressor producing refrigeration at one or two temperature levels

Research on the operation of the refrigerating machine working on the Voorhees cycle which permits two-stage compression in a single-cylinder compressor has been carried out. The purpose of this research was to study the possibilities of using the Voorhees machine in a domestic refrigerator for production of refrigeration at one or two temperature levels. The experiments were carried out on the basis of a small hermetic lubricated compressor with a low refrigerating capacity operating on a commonly used R12 and natural refrigerant isobutane R600a. The improved refrigerating capacity in the Voorhees cycle with isobutane makes the latter an alternative substitute for conventional refrigerants. Some peculiarities in the operation of a hermetic piston compressor as part of the Voorhees refrigerating machine have been revealed. They require the use of a compressor developed specially for the Voorhees cycle. The method of optimizing the cycle parameters for a one temperature refrigerating system is suggested in this paper. The research carried out proved that the optimum intermediate pressures of the Voorhees refrigerating machine producing refrigeration either at one or two temperature levels are different.     

Methodology for thermal design of novel combined refrigeration/power binary fluid systems

Refrigeration cogeneration systems which generate power alongside with cooling improve energy utilization significantly, because such systems offer a more reasonable arrangement of energy and exergy “flows” within the system, which results in lower fuel consumption as compared to the separate generation of power and cooling or heating. This paper proposes several novel systems of that type, based on ammonia–water working fluid. Importantly, general principles for integration of refrigeration and power systems to produce better energy and exergy efficiencies are summarized, based primarily on the reduction of exergy destruction. The proposed plants analyzed here operate in a fully-integrated combined cycle mode with ammonia–water Rankine cycle(s) and an ammonia refrigeration cycle, interconnected by absorption, separation and heat transfer processes. It was found that the cogeneration systems have good performance, with energy and exergy efficiencies of 28% and 55–60%, respectively, for the base-case studied (at maximum heat input temperature of 450 °C). That efficiency is, by itself, excellent for cogeneration cycles using heat sources at these temperatures, with the exergy efficiency comparable to that of nuclear power plants. When using exhaust heat from topping gas turbine power plants, the total plant energy efficiency can rise to the remarkable value of about 57%. The hardware proposed for use is conventional and commercially available; no hardware additional to that needed in conventional power and absorption cycles is needed.     

Experimental investigation of a vapor absorption refrigeration system

An experimental investigation of the performance of a commercially available vapor absorption refrigeration (VAR) system is described. The natural gas-fired VAR system uses aqua-ammonia solution with ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent and has a rated cooling capacity of 10 kW. The unit was extensively modified to allow fluid pressures and temperatures to be measured at strategic points in the system. The mass flow rates of refrigerant, weak solution, and strong solution were also measured. The system as supplied incorporates air-cooled condenser and absorber units. Water-cooled absorber and condenser units were fitted to extend the VAR unit's range of operating conditions by varying the cooling water inlet temperature and/or flow rates to these units. The response of the refrigeration system to variations in chilled water inlet temperature, chilled water level in the evaporator drum, chilled water flow rate, and variable heat input are presented.     

Thermodynamic evaluation of new absorbent mixtures of lithium bromide and organic salts for absorption refrigeration machines

Mixtures of lithium bromide and organic salts of sodium and potassium (formate, acetate and lactate) have been evaluated as alternative absorbents for absorption refrigeration machines. The main objective is to overpass the limitations of lithium bromide and improve the characteristics and the efficiency of the refrigeration cycle. In order to select the mixture that presents better properties for its employment in absorption refrigeration cycles, a thermodynamic analysis have been done. Density, viscosity, enthalpies of dilution, solubility and vapour pressure data of the proposed mixtures have been measured. A simulation program has been developed to evaluate temperatures, heats exchanged in the different sections and the efficiency of the cycle.     

An experimental investigation on performance of bubble pump with lunate channel for absorption refrigeration system

An experimental research on the performance of the bubble pump for absorption refrigeration units was made. The bubble pump provides the drive for the absorption cycle and is a decisive component of the absorption refrigeration unit. The bubble pump's property determines the efficiency of the absorption refrigeration system. A continuous experimental system with different size of bubbles pumps were designed, constructed and successfully worked. The experiments were performed by changing some of the parameters affecting the bubble pump performance. The experimental results shows that the performance of the bubble pump depends mainly on the driving temperature, the solution head and the combining tube diameters. With the suitable size of section area of the pump tubes the net elevating height of solution is 2.5 times as high as the solution submergence. The lunate channel has several outstanding characteristics, such as low starting temperature (minimum 68 °C), wide operating temperature range and lower requirement for vacuum condition (under 10 kPa). Then the elevating capability of the bubble pump with lunate channel is much better than others currently. It would provide well foundation for practical applications.     

Simulation of ternary ammonia–water–salt absorption refrigeration cyclesSimulation des cycles frigorifiques à absorption à ammoniac / eau / sel

This paper proposes a new working fluid for refrigeration cycles utilizing low temperature heat sources. The proposed working fluid consists of the ammonia–water working fluid mixture and a salt. The salt is used to aid the removal of ammonia from the liquid solution. This effect is a manifestation of the well known “salting-out” effect. While the addition of salt improves the generator performance, it also has a detrimental effect on the absorber. The overall effects on the performance of three absorption cycles using the NH₃–H₂O–NaOH working fluid have been investigated using computer simulations. The results indicated that salting out can lower the generator operating temperature while simultaneously improving the cycle performance. Furthermore, limiting the salt to the generator suggests potential for further improvement in cycle performance.     

Distillation column configurations in ammonia–water absorption refrigeration systems

In ammonia–water absorption refrigeration systems a purification process to reduce the water content in the vapour leaving the generator is required. During this process the water content in the vapour must be reduced to a minimum, otherwise it tends to accumulate in the evaporator and strongly deteriorates the efficiency of the system. The vapour purification can be carried out by partial condensation, by establishing a liquid–vapour counter flow or by combining both methods. In systems with partial condensation, the distillation column can be composed of one or more rectifiers using different cooling mediums, and the rectifying and stripping sections. In complete condensation systems only the rectifying and stripping sections can be used. Therefore different distillation column arrangements should be considered. This paper presents a study of several distillation column configurations for single stage ammonia–water absorption refrigeration systems with partial and complete condensation. In order to evaluate and compare the different configurations, a parameter that indicates the ratio of the ammonia vapour concentration increase in each part of the column to the total ammonia purification has been defined. The analysis has been based on the system COP. Finally the efficiency in each part of the column has been calculated to estimate its design requirements.     

A simple method for prediction of chilling times: extension to three-dimensional irregular shapes

The extension of a previously published empirical chilling time prediction method to three-dimensional irregular shapes was investigated. The real geometric shapes were related to equivalent ellipsoids using simple geometric measurements. Chilling time estimates were made using two shape-dependent parameters in conjunction with the first term in the series-analytical solution for convective cooling of a sphere. Experiments for eight geometric shapes (21 runs) were used to validate the model for thermal centre temperature predictions. The accuracy of the model for predicting mass-average temperatures of irregular shapes was not tested. Accurate chilling time prediction by a method employing only simple algebraic expressions is now possible for objects of any shape.     

Solar refrigeration options – a state-of-the-art review

A state-of-the-art review is presented of the different technologies that are available to deliver refrigeration from solar energy. The review covers solar electric, solar thermal and some new emerging technologies. The solar thermal systems include thermo-mechanical, absorption, adsorption and desiccant solutions. A comparison is made between the different solutions both from the point of view of energy efficiency and economic feasibility. Solar electric and thermo-mechanical systems appear to be more expensive than thermal sorption systems. Absorption and adsorption are comparable in terms of performance but adsorption chillers are more expensive and bulkier than absorption chillers. The total cost of a single-effect LiBr–water absorption system is estimated to be the lowest.     

Experimental verification of a mathematical model for simulation of industrial refrigeration plants

A mathematical model, proposed for simulation of food refrigeration processes, was tested against experimental data collected in a New Zealand meat processing plant which had a total refrigeration capacity of 2.5 MW. Predicted air temperatures in freezing and chilling operations followed the same trends as measured data. Differences were shown to be more attributable to uncertainties in data than to deficiencies in the formulation of the mathematical model. The model is considered suitable for use in simulation of a wide range of food refrigeration processes. Such simulations provide useful information about plant performance that cannot be obtained by steady state analysis. Predictions were worst for short times immediately following step changes in plant operation; should more accurate simulation of these periods be required a different form of mathematical model is needed.     

Mass transfer characteristics of a structured packing for ammonia rectification in ammonia–water absorption refrigeration systems

In ammonia–water absorption refrigeration systems a purification process of the vapours produced in the generator is required. One type of equipment to carry out the purification process is a packed column. However, detailed experimental studies at the normal operating conditions found in ammonia–water absorption refrigeration systems have not been found. An experimental facility has been designed and built to study the ammonia–water rectification in packed columns. Experimental tests have been performed at the normal operating conditions found in the high-pressure stage of a small power ammonia–water absorption refrigeration system. In this paper, the experimental set-up is described and experimental results of the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) and the volumetric mass transfer coefficient of a rectifying section with the Sulzer BX packing are presented. The HETP values and the experimental mass transfer coefficients are compared with different data and correlations proposed in the literature; it has been found that the differences are appreciable.