Local Bubble Dynamics and Macroscopic Flow Structure in Bubble Columns with Different Scales

Local bubble behaviours were investigated in three bubble columns with different diameters of 200, 400 and 800 mm. By means of a novel single‐tip optical fibre probe employing laser Doppler technique, the local gas holdup, bubble frequency, bubble size and velocity were measured simultaneously at different locations of the columns. Measurements were performed in air‐water system at superficial gas velocities up to 90 mm/s. The averaged profiles and instantaneous measurements were analyzed and compared for different columns. The presence of a coherent gross circulation structure spanning the entire column diameter in the larger column rather than a pair of symmetrical circulation cells observed in the smaller columns has been confirmed.     

激光成像技术在气泡生成行为研究中的应用

针对液相中单喷嘴的气泡生成过程,采用激光成像技术结合电荷耦合器件(Charge Coupling Device, CCD)摄像机照相方法研究了甘油水溶液中的气泡生成行为,结果表明该法能够获得清晰的二维气泡放大图像. 考察了溶液浓度、气室体积、喷嘴直径和气体流量对气泡分离体积的影响,发现气泡分离体积分别随着溶液浓度和气室体积的增大而增大;在所研究的喷嘴直径(1, 1.5和2 mm)范围内,气泡分离体积随着喷嘴直径的增大而减小;气体流量对气泡分离体积的影响与喷嘴直径有关,当喷嘴直径为1和1.5 mm时,气泡分离体积随着气体流量的升高而增大,但当喷嘴直径为2 mm时,气泡分离体积随着气体流量的升高先减小后增大.     

Characteristics of flow fields in the gas–liquid mini-bubble columns with particle image velocimetry measurements

As a new type of gas–liquid microreactors, the gas–liquid mini-bubble column has potential applications. However, few studies on the flow fields in the mini-bubble column can be found at present. In this work, particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to visually study the velocity fields, vorticity fields and bubble dynamics in the gas–liquid mini-bubble columns with column inner diameters of 1–3 mm and mini-bubble diameters ranged from 0.7 to 1.3 mm. It is found that with the increase of superficial liquid velocity, bubbles rose from almost straight line to Z-shaped or S-shaped trajectory, and the bubble trajectory changed from one-dimension to three-dimension; when the bubble velocity changed, the bubble size and gas holdup decreased; bubble terminal velocity was controlled by bubble buoyancy and flow resistance, and increased slightly with bubble coalescence. These findings may provide basic reference for the design and scale-up of such a mini-bubble column reactor.     

Analysis of bubble coalescence and determination of the bubble radius for long-chain branched poly(ethylene terephthalate) melt foaming with a pressure balanced bubble-growth model

A pressure balanced bubble-growth (PBB) model was proposed to analyze bubble coalescence and determine the bubble radius for the melt foaming of long-chain branched poly(ethylene terephthalate) (LCB-PET). The key for the PBB model calculation was to determine the bubble inner pressure composed of additional pressure induced by interface tension, and molecular stress, that is, the biaxial tensile stress of the polymer cell wall calculated with the molecular stress function model. LCB-PET was generated by reactive extrusion, and the molecular structure and viscoelasticity were well characterized. Batch melt-foaming experiments with CO₂ were conducted for the LCB-PET. The critical coalescence radius curve was calculated with the PBB model to dynamically describe the bubble coalescence and evaluate the melt foamability. The PBB model was also used to determine the bubble size of LCB-PET foam. Both the evaluation of the melt-foamability and the determination of the bubble radius agreed well the experimental results.     

Hydrodynamics and simulation of air–water homogeneous bubble column under elevated pressure

A gas–liquid Eulerian computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model coupled with a population balance equation (PBE) was presented to investigate hydrodynamics of an air–water bubble column (1.8 m in height and 0.1 m in inner diameter) under elevated pressure in terms of pressure drop, gas holdup, mean bubble size, and bubble surface area. The CFD-PBE model was modified with three pressure correction factors to predict both the total gas holdup and the mean bubble size in the homogeneous bubbly flow regime. The three correction factors were optimized compared to experimental data. Increasing the pressure led to increasing the density, reducing the bubble size, and increasing the gas holdup. The bubble size distribution moved toward a smaller bubble size, as the pressure increased. The modified CFD-PBE model validated with experimental data and empirical models represented well hydrodynamics of the bubble column at P = 0.1, 1.5, and 3.5 MPa.     

气升式外环流反应器流体力学参数的轴径向分布

在气升式外环流反应器（Φ 0.09 m×1.8 m）内,利用压差法和双探针电导探头技术考察了不同表观气速下空气-水两相体系中气含率及气泡参数随轴径向位置的变化规律,测得了平均及局部气含率、气泡尺寸及分布、气泡上升速度、气泡频率以及气液相界面积,并从气液流场特征及气泡间相互作用等方面对实验结果作出分析。基于实验数据拟合出局部气含率随表观气速和轴径向位置的关联式。     

大孔径高气速单孔气泡形成

在内径为190mm的鼓泡塔内,研究了空气-去离子水系统在大孔径高气速条件下的单孔气泡形成。考察了五个不同的孔径,分别为4、8、10、15及21mm,孔口气速范围为0.8~154.8m·s^-1。以CCD摄像记录气泡的形状及尺寸,根据气泡长径比的变化,得到气泡初始形态转变时的临界孔口气速：当孔口气速低于20m·s^-1时,孔口气泡近似于球形,长径比小于1.1;当孔口气速大于50m·s^-1时,气泡呈现椭球形,长径比大于1.5。并对气泡尺寸与孔径及孔口气速进行关联,所得关联式对孔径大于3mm、孔口气速在10~80m·s^-1范围内所形成的气泡尺寸预测效果较好。     

Bubble size and velocity measurement in gas—liquid systems: Application of fiber optic technique to pilot plant scale

A new fiber optic probe was developed for the detection and measurement of bubble sizes and velocities in a gas-liquid column. The probe is made of a single 1 mm plastic fiber with a sharp wedge tip. The calibration was carried out on a laboratory scale unit using a cine-photographic technique to verify the measurements. Bubble velocities were calculated using two identical parallel fibers and the cross-correlation technique. With the velocities and the passage time determined, it was then possible to determine the bubble diameter. Bubble diameters were within 10% of the measurements obtained with the cine-photographic technique. After calibration, measurements were carried out on a pilot scale unit.     

A novel approach for estimating the average bubble size for foams flowing in vertical columns

Bubbles in flowing foams deform, coalesce, and rupture. The bubble size, however, determines to a great extent the functionality and mechanical properties of the foam. Often it is not possible to measure directly the bubble size in a flowing foam, either because the system or the foam itself is not transparent. In order to determine the average bubble size in a flowing foam, a novel approach to estimate the average bubble size was developed, based upon the overflowing foam liquid content and conductivity measurements.A flowing foam column with variable orifice diameters was designed and experiments were performed with different gas flowrates, orifice diameters and surfactant (Sodium dodecyl sulphate) concentrations. Image analysis was used to measure directly the bubble size in the foam. When progressively smaller orifices were inserted, more coalescence was observed, as well as a decrease in the overflowing liquid content and the foam conductivity. Estimating the bubble size from these measurements showed close agreement with the directly measured bubble sizes.     

PIV and PLIF measurements of interacting bubble plumes and their role in liquid-phase mixing in a shallow vessel

Gas-induced liquid-phase mixing in shallow vessels is important to primary and secondary steel-refining processes and governs the quality of the steel. In the present work, we have investigated the dynamics of meandering bubble plumes and their role in liquid-phase mixing in shallow vessel that corresponds to 1:6 scaled-down model of ladle used in the secondary steel-refining process. The effects of multiple meandering bubble plumes and their interactions on the liquid-phase velocity distribution, recirculatory flow, plume oscillation frequencies, and turbulent kinetic energy are analyzed for different bottom injection configurations using particle image velocimetry measurements. The role of meandering bubble plumes and their interactions in the liquid-phase mixing is analyzed using planar laser-induced fluorescence measurements. ~60% reduction in the mixing time was found with differential flow scheme. Present findings help to understand the contributions of differential flow and bubble plumes interactions to liquid-phase mixing in shallow vessels.     

气泡上升过程中尾流演变的VOF数值模拟

利用VOF（volume of fluid）方法对静止水中气泡的自由上升过程进行了数值模拟,研究了初始直径不同的气泡自由上升时尾流的演变过程。研究发现气泡自由上升过程中其尾流有对称脱落、过渡态和周期性脱落三种运动状态,其中过渡态是介于对称脱落和周期性脱落之间的非稳定性脱落。气泡上升过程中其形状由球形转变为椭球形。尾流的对称脱落发生在气泡处于椭球形状且沿直线上升的过程;随着气泡的继续上升,当气泡的长轴与水平方向产生夹角时,尾流就会由对称脱落转变为过渡态（非稳定性脱落）;最终,尾流会转变为周期性脱落。2.4 ~3.7 mm气泡尾流运动状态发生转变的临界Reynolds数不同,且随气泡初始直径的增大而增加。直径为2.4 ~3.7 mm气泡的尾流周期性脱落的频率为31 ~39 Hz,且频率随气泡直径的增大而减小。     

超声场中鼓泡塔内气泡直径分布特征研究

利用自主研发的超声鼓泡塔和双电导探针气泡特征参数测量仪测定了不同频率组合下超声场辐射对鼓泡塔内气泡Sauter直径随表观气速和鼓泡塔径向及轴向位置的分布情况。实验结果表明,在距气体分布板轴向距离250 mm、塔中心处气泡Sauter直径由于超声作用而显著减小,最大减幅达55%;在超声场作用下随着表观气速增大,气泡Sauter直径呈增大趋势,当表观气速大于0.06 m/s时,气泡Sauter直径趋于不变;大气泡在塔中心区域聚集倾向明显,小气泡分布在塔壁面附近,气泡Sauter直径(在径向位置)呈现中心峰分布趋势;随着距气体分布板轴向距离增加,气泡Sauter直径增大,在多频混响声场中,气泡Sauter直径增速小于单频声场中增速,即在多频混响超声场中易形成小气泡。实验结果证实,超声场有利于减小气泡体积,增大气泡比表面积,这对于加强气液相间传质、提高传质效果会有显著作用。     

温度与压力对单孔气泡形成过程的影响

温度压力对进气管孔口气泡的生成具有重要影响。以氮气-水、氦气-水、氮气-十四烷为研究体系,采用高速摄像法,观察了恒速流下孔口气泡的形成过程,考察了孔口气速（0~1500 cm/s）、温度(293~393 K)、压力（0~6 MPa）、孔径（1.12, 2.5 mm）、气体类型（N₂、He）对气泡生长过程的影响。实验表明：随着压力增加,气泡直径减小,纵横比增加;温度升高一方面导致黏度、密度和表面张力降低,使气泡直径减小,另一方面加剧了液体汽化,使得气泡直径增大。根据实验结果修正了Gaddis提出的气泡直径模型,引入饱和蒸气压贡献项,得出新的适用于高温高压条件下气泡直径的估算式。     

HYDRODYNAMIC STUDIES IN FISCHER-TROPSCH DERIVED WAXES IN A BUBBLE COLUMN

Gas hold-up and Sauter mean bubble diameter measurements were made in a 0.051 m diameter by 3 m long glass bubble column in the system, nitrogen-molten wax, with three different waxes (paraffin wax FT-300, Sasol's Arge wax and Mobil's reactor wax). Paraffin wax has a tendency to foam and gas hold-up is a strong function of gas distributor type, temperature and start-up procedure, whereas the reactor waxes do not foam and are much less affected by these variables, In experiments at 265°C with a 1.85 mm single hole orifice plate distributor the gas hold-ups were nearly the same for all three waxes. However, significant differences in Sauter mean bubble diameters were obtained in experiments with different waxes; FT-300 wax produced the smallest Sauter mean bubble diameters whereas Mobil's reactor wax produced the largest bubbles. Addition of 1-octadecanol and octadecanoic acid (up to 10wt%) to the FT-300 paraffin wax caused an increase in gas hold-up and a delay in the foam break-up in runs at 265°C with the 1.85 mm orifice plate distributor.     

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF FLUIDIZED BEDS AT ELEVATED PRESSURES

The object of the work described here was to elucidate the effects of operation under pressure on the physical behaviour of gas fluidized beds. Extensive measurements of various bubble properties such as size, shape and rise velocity in beds of coarse powders (mean particle diameters of 184 μm and 450μm) operated at pressures of up to 81 bar were made by photographing the images created by irradiation of the bed with X-rays, and analysing the bubble silhouettes thereby obtained. Most of the results presented here are averages of some 200 individual measurements.

Experimental evidence to support the following picture of the effect of pressurization on the behaviour of freely bubbling gas fluidized beds is presented. Both bubble interaction (tendency to coalesce) and the incidence of bubble splitting increase with increasing pressure; the two are intimately connected. The nett results are a decrease in bubble size with increasing pressure over most of the pressure range and an increase in the tendency for bubbles to distribute non-uniformly in a radial direction. This latter tendency probably causes gross solids circulation in the bed, and this in turn leads to higher bubble rise velocities than those observed for single bubbles under similar conditions. The splitting mechanism accounting for the decrease in bubble size was found to be intrusion of the wake into the bubble void by the flow of gas through the wake region of a leading bubble during pair coalescence.

An updated review of other published work relating to the subject of experimental observations of the effects of pressure on gas fluidized beds is included in the form of a table.     

The Effect of Sparger Geometry on Gas Bubble Flow Behaviors Using Electrical Resistance Tomography

By electrical resistance tomography （ERT） the cross sectional profiles of gas hold-up in a φ56mm bubble column are obtained with four designs of gas sparger. The effect of sparger geometry on the bubble distribution is revealed by applying a sensitivity conjugated gradients reconstruction method （SCG）. Experimental results show that overall hold-up obtained by ERT is generally in good agreement with those measured with the pressure transducer and the ERT system produces informative evidence that the radial profiles of hold-up is very similar to the sparger design in the lower section of bubble column. Meanwhile, the rise velocity of bubble swarm and the Sauter mean bubble size are evaluated using ERT based on dynamic gas disengagement theory. The experimental results are in good agreement with correlations and conventional estimation obtained using pressure transmitter methods.     

PX氧化鼓泡塔反应器流动规律的研究

采用改进的Pavlov管测定鼓泡塔中的液相局部流速,采用电导探针方法测定气含率分布,测定了3种塔径（D200mm,D500mm,D800mm）、不同空塔气速下的流速三维分布和气含率分布。     

气水流动中气泡生成体积计算模型的改进

In order to address the bubble formation and movement in air-water two-phase flow,single bubble rising in stagnant water is experimentally studied by digital image processing.Bubbles are released individually from the submerged orifices with different diameters(1.81 mm,2.07 mm,2.98 mm,3.92 mm)at different detachment frequency.Images are recorded by a high-speed video camera and processed by digital image processing technique. The factors impacting the formed volume of bubble are discussed.The experimental results showed that a threshold of gas flow rate(400 mm 3 ·s- 1)divides the bubble formation into two regimes:the constant volume regime and the growing volume regime.Especially for the growing volume regime,the surface tension is taken into account.The bubble volume is consisted of two parts:the surface tension impacting part and the gas volume flow rate impacting part.An improved correlation for bubble volume prediction is developed for the two regimes and better coincidence with the experiment data than the previous models is obtained.     

Characterization of an ultrasonic system using wavelet transforms

A new method has been developed for the determination of the spatial distribution of the cavitation intensity in an ultrasound processor. The method uses wavelet transform analysis of the acoustic emission profiles. The periodic modulation of the acoustic pressure field in an ultrasound processor causes unsteady radial motion of the bubbles, resulting in non-stationary acoustic emission profiles that cannot be analyzed by Fourier transform. The cavitation intensity has been judged experimentally and numerically. The experimental method used the “cavitation noise coefficient” defined as the sum of the energy at different scales (or levels) in the wavelet transform of the measured signal containing the subharmonic and harmonics of the fundamental frequency. The numerical method involved the simulation of the radial motion of a bubble and the pressure waves radiated by it, applying experimentally measured acoustic pressure signals as the forcing function. The numerically predicted spatial variation of the cavitation intensity was in agreement with the experimental measurements. It is proposed that the conical divergence of the acoustic waves from the transducers and the differences in the electrical and acoustical characteristics of the adjacent transducers in the bath give rise to a non-uniform cavitation intensity distribution.     

PDA measurements in a three‐phase bubble column

Phase Doppler anemometry was used to quantify the flow characteristic of a three phases (liquid, solid, and bubbles) cylindrical bubble column driven by a point air source made of a 30‐mm diameter perforated air stone centrally mounted at the bottom. The cylindrical bubble column had an inner diameter of 152 mm and was filled with liquid up to 1 m above the point source. Acrylic beads with a nominal diameter of 3 mm were used as the solid phase. To match the density of the solid phase which was 1.05 kg/m³, the liquid density was raised to about 1.0485 kg/m3 by added salt. The bubble diameters generated were within the range of 600–2400 µm. The detailed turbulent characteristics of the liquid‐phase velocity, bubble diameter, bubble velocity, and solid velocity were measured at three different air rates, namely 0.4, 0.8, and 1.2 L/min (corresponding to average gas volume fraction of 0.0084, 0.0168, and 0.0258, respectively) for the homogeneous bubble column regime. With the addition of the solid phase, the flow field was found to be relatively steady compared to the two‐phase column referencing the probability density functions for both the liquid and bubble velocities. An analysis based on the determination of the drag forces and transversal lift forces was performed to examine the flow stability in the three‐phase bubble column. The analysis illustrated that how the added solid phase effectively stabilized the flow field to achieve a steady circulation in the bubble column and a generalized criterion for the flow stability in the three‐phase bubble column was derived. Further investigation for the transition and the heterogeneous bubble column regime with air rates at 2.0 and 4.0 L/min shown that this criterion can also be used as a general prediction of flow stability in this three‐phase bubble column. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 59: 2286–2307, 2013