Energy conservation: The need for a sharper institutional focus

Improved efficiency of energy usage has a new role to play in economic growth in both developed and developing countries. Economic pricing of energy is central to effective energy conservation policies. But even when such policies are pursued, there are a number of barriers which inhibit the effective working of the market — in particular, the fragmentation of responsibility for decisions affecting energy use (both within individual governmetal systems and amongst the myriad of individual consumers involved), and lack of appreciation of the scope for increased efficiency and of what can be achieved technically. Governmental intervention is necessary to overcome market imperfections. The form will vary according to political philosophy and social and institutional patterns. Experience in the industrialized countries, with a varied institutional response, can provide valuable guidelines for developing countries, whose importance in commercial energy markets is increasing sharply and could prove a crucial factor in times of market disruption.     

Energy futures for oil-importing developing countries

A number of energy proposals for oil-importing developing countries (OIDCs) are presented in outline, pointing out strengths and weaknesses. Taking the analysis of the proposals further, the paper then discusses the broader political and economic factors that shape the nature of demand. In essence, it shows that energy proposals formulated on the basis of short-term economic considerations while ignoring how demand is moulded by political and economic structures, unnecessarily narrow the energy options. In conclusion, some criteria for an equitable energy policy are presented.     

Energy pricing policies in developing countries

Government energy pricing policies have multiple and often conflicting objectives: economic efficiency, government revenues (for both parastatal supply companies and the treasury), maintenance or improvement of income distribution, promotion of particular sectors (such as industrial exporters and local resource development) demand management and security of supply. It is important to examine the impacts on and the trade-offs between these objectives resulting from alternative policies in order to assist in policy selection. This article discusses the more important objectives and their conflicts and outlines an approach for the quantitative examination of alternative policies.     

Potential energy demand for cooling in the 50 largest metropolitan areas of the world: Implications for developing countries

Air conditioning of dwellings in developing countries is currently rather rare, but increasing personal income is expected to change that. This study examined the potential energy demand for cooling in the 50 most populous metropolitan areas of the world, and assessed the incremental demand in developing countries that this would create on top of the current energy demand due to heating. The analysis used local cooling and heating degree-day data. The main results are as follows: (1) Most of the largest metropolitan areas are in developing countries (38 out of 50), and most of them, in turn, are in warm to hot climates. (2) All but two of the top 30 metropolitan areas in terms of cooling degree days are in developing countries. (3) The potential cooling demands are greater than heating demands in most of the metropolitan areas that are in developing countries (24 out of 38). The main implication of these findings is that increasing personal income is likely to lead to an unprecedented increase in energy demand in many developing countries. For example, the potential cooling demand in metropolitan Mumbai is about 24% of the demand for the entire United States.     

Energy planning in developing countries

The sharp increases in international oil prices during the past decade have had a major impact on growth prospects and balance of payments in developing countries. This has led to an increasing awareness that energy is a crucial factor in the development process. This paper describes the planning context in developing countries and summarizes their needs. Within an overall analytical framework for analysis and planning, a number of specific approaches and examples are given in the areas of energy demand and supply planning. One of the major conclusions is that the energy planning process can be effective only as an integral part of development planning.     

Energy problems and policies in developing countries

This paper evaluates trends in energy consumption and supply, national responses in restructuring the energy sector emanating from the global oil price increases of 1973–74 and 1979–80, as well as efforts to restructure the economic systems in developing nations. The analysis reveals diverse trends and effects of measures taken but concludes by pointing to the capital constraints and intensification of energy consumption due to various aspects of economic development compounding the energy problems faced by these countries. The implications of past trends and efforts are summarized to conclude that unless efforts are mounted worlwide to mitigate the problems of these nations, the global community could be affected by a growing and widespread crisis.     

Energy for the developing world: A critique of the new wisdom

In the developed North there is a growing consensus that the less developed countries (LDCs) of the South should support large programmes on solar energy and energy conservation. Here Andrew MacKillop disputes this view. Since oil consumption in LDCs is tiny relative to that of the developed countries, he argues that conservation is more appropriate for the North, and that the resulting oil savings could provide ample oil supplies for development in the South. Also, LDCs have excellent prospects for indigenous oil development and for advantageous trade relations with oil exporters. Therefore the high costs of developing unconventional sources should, it is suggested, be borne by the North and the technology subsequently transferred to the South. The scarce capital of the South should be devoted to non-energy sectors and oil development, not solar power.     

Energy [R]evolution 2008—a sustainable world energy perspective

The Energy [R]evolution 2008 scenario is an update of the Energy [R]evolution scenario published in 2007. It takes up recent trends in global socio-economic developments, and analyses to which extent they affect chances for achieving global climate protection targets. The main target is to reduce global CO₂ emissions to 10 Gt per year in 2050, thus limiting global average temperature increase to 2 °C and preventing dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. A review of sector and region specific energy efficiency measures resulted in the specification of a global energy demand scenario incorporating strong energy efficiency measures. The corresponding energy supply scenario has been developed in an iterative process in close cooperation with stakeholders and regional counterparts from academia, NGOs and the renewable energy industry. The Energy [R]evolution scenario shows that renewable energy can provide more than half of the world's energy needs by 2050. Developing countries can virtually stabilise their CO₂ emissions, whilst at the same time increasing energy consumption through economic growth. OECD countries will be able to reduce their emissions by up to 80%.     

Energy consumption and modes of industrialization Four developing countries

Because of heterogeneity of developing countries, energy consumption dynamics can only be analysed at the level of individual countries. This paper focuses on the comparison of the energy consumption dynamics of South Korea, India, Brazil and Mexico and on the origins of the dynamics observed. It is shown that the same factors explain the diversified energy consumption dynamics: the national availability of energy resources, the energy policies and the modes of industrialization adopted, as well as the patterns of private consumption.     

World energy markets and the developing countries

Primary energy consumption in the developing countries has been increasing rapidly in the last ten years, giving rise to the prospect that these countries will play an even greater role in world energy markets. This paper describes the adjustments to higher petroleum prices that have taken place in the developing countries and looks at their likely future role. For the purpose of exposition, the developing countries are divided into oil-exporting and oil-importing groups. Analysis is conducted mostly at the aggregate level but fuel-specific and sectoral trends are also identified. The author notes that the experience of the last ten years suggests that the dramatic increases in international petroleum prices had a relatively minor impact on the developing countries′ total energy consumption. There was, however, a significant degree of substitution for other fuels for petroleum in the oil-importing developing countries. The prognostications for the future presented in this paper are based on the assumption that adjustments to price changes take more time in the developing countries. A reasonable degree of adjustment can be expected for the years ahead.     

Lessons from the past thirty years

Looking back over the past 30 years we have learned that energy and GDP growth do not necessarily proceed in lock step; that fears of physical shortages of oil were greatly exaggerated; that deregulation and privatization of the power sector has proved to be more difficult than envisaged; that market obstacles to renewable and energy efficiency remain strong; that technology can make a big difference but it is difficult to forecast which technologies will succeed; that the developing countries are a force to be reckoned with in world energy markets; that it is extremely difficult to bring energy services to the poor; and that unforeseen developments happen and they happen frequently.     

工厂的用能分析与节能

不同的企业，因生产工艺、规模及所消耗能源的种类不同，故其能耗量也不尽相同。针对某工厂企业的能耗状况进行调查和分析，根据现场调查，并比较不同时间段的能源使用状况，分析造成各阶段能耗不同的原因，由此找出了节能方法。     

Energy conservation in the industrial sector of developing countries

This paper begins by examining the most energy-intensive industries and methods by which fuel efficiency can be improved. Next the author analyses the economics of energy conservation using specific case studies drawn from India. It is shown that investing in energy efficiency is more economical Btu per Btu than investing in the enhancement of domestic energy resources. The author also assesses changes in the economics of conservation for private firms when there are government incentives. Finally government policies that can overcome economic and non-economic disincentives for investing in energy conservation are examined.     

Energy for sustainable development: A case of developing countries

Today, there are 1.4 billion people around the world that lack access to electricity, some 85% of them in rural areas. Without additional dedicated policies, by 2030 the number of people drops, but only to 1.2 billion. Some 15% of the world's population still lack access, the majority of them living in Sub-Saharan Africa. The number of people relying on the traditional use of biomass is projected to rise from 2.7 billion today to 2.8 billion in 2030. Addressing these inequities depends upon international recognition that the projected situation is intolerable, a commitment to effect the necessary change, and setting targets and indicators to monitor progress. A new financial, institutional and technological framework is required, as is capacity building in order to dramatically scale up access to modern energy services at the local and regional levels. In this paper, we discussed the energy situation of the developing countries for sustainable development.     

Sustainable rural bioenergy production for developing countries

Bioenergy is a renewable energy source made from biomass, which are organic materials such as plants and animals. Until enough biomass resources to ensure energy demand in the world is available, the bioenergy obtained from biomass, there may be used for heat, electrical and transport. Main biomass thermo-chemical conversion technologies are pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. Biomass can be burned to produce heat and electricity, changed to gas-like fuels such as methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, or changed to a liquid fuel. Modern biomass can be used for the generation of electricity and heat using modern conversion technologies. Technological advances have made modern biomass cogeneration plants cleaner, more efficient, and, under certain conditions, cost-effective as compared to public utility grids and fossil-fuel boilers or generators. Biomass can be converted to liquid biofuels: bioethanol and biodiesel. Two biofuels are becoming more and more attractive and competitive as complementary to or substitutions for petroleum basic products, due to their economic and environmental benefits.     

A review of building energy regulation and policy for energy conservation in developing countries

The rapid growth of energy use, worldwide, hfs raised concerns over problems of energy supply and exhaustion of energy resources. Most of the developed countries are implementing building energy regulations such as energy standards, codes etc., to reduce building energy consumption. The position of developing countries with respect to energy regulations implementation and enforcement is either poorly documented or not documented at all. In addition, there is a lack of consistent data, which makes it difficult to understand the underlying changes that affect energy regulation implementation in developing countries. In that respect, this paper investigates the progress of building energy regulations in developing countries and its implication for energy conservation and efficiency. The present status of building energy regulations in 60 developing countries around the world was analysed through a survey of building energy regulations using online survey. The study revealed the present progress made on building energy regulations in relation to implementation, development and compliance; at the same time the study recommends possible solutions to the barriers facing building energy regulation implementation in the developing world.     

Energy indicators for tracking sustainability in developing countries

Due to the fact that human activities and most sustainability issues are closely related to energy use, the energy system is a sound framework for providing lead indicators for sustainable development. Common energy-economic models enable the estimation of future states of the energy system. An energy system-based lead indicator set can be used to develop consistent and coherent future indicator estimates and to track sustainability, a clear advantage over existing sets.     

Alternative Energy Sources: The Quest for Sustainable Energy [book review]

This book presents a large amount of data dealing with the conventional and alternate energy resources and how they are used. The book is comprised of ten chapters and covers some of the following topics: a discussion about fossil fuels, including coal-fired power plants; sustainable development, and the role of natural gas; environmental impacts of energy consumption; nuclear energy; and renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, hydro, tidal. wave, biomass, and geothermal sources. The book provides lots of data, but not in an organized way. It also appears that the selection of fuels and energy supply alternatives seem to be arbitrary. Despite the book's title, more than half of the pages discuss energy from fossil fuels and their impact on the environment.     

Energy consumption,economic growth and prices: A reassessment using panel VECM for developed and developing countries

This paper reinvestigates the energy consumption–GDP growth nexus in a panel error correction model using data on 20 net energy importers and exporters from 1971 to 2002. Among the energy exporters, there was bidirectional causality between economic growth and energy consumption in the developed countries in both the short and long run, while in the developing countries energy consumption stimulates growth only in the short run. The former result is also found for energy importers and the latter result exists only for the developed countries within this category. In addition, compared to the developing countries, the developed countries’ elasticity response in terms of economic growth from an increase in energy consumption is larger although its income elasticity is lower and less than unitary. Lastly, the implications for energy policy calling for a more holistic approach are discussed.     

Energy consumption with sustainable development in developing country: a case in Jiangsu, China

Jiangsu is one of the provinces in China that have great population density and fast economic development. Therefore it is important to ensure large quantity of stable and high-quality energy supply for its development. With the development of the economy, the demand for energy is increasing very fast while the energy supply is going short. The supply of the local primary energy is only 23% of the demand. The final energy consumption reaches 78 Mtce (1 tce=7,000,000 kcal), among which the industry and construction account for 78%. Though the total consumption is large, the energy consumption per capita is only 1.13 tce, the electricity consumption per capita 1017 kW, and the household electricity consumption per capita is 138 kW. Coal accounts for about 76% of the total energy consumed. This paper discusses utilization ratio of energy and the serious pollution caused by energy consumption.