The precautionary principle and other non-tariff barriers to free and fair international food trade

International food trade and world population are growing rapidly. National legislation has been enacted and implemented in many countries to assure good quality and safe foods to meet increased demand. No country is fully self-sufficient in domestic food production to meet population demands, and all require some food imports. Current international food trade agreements call for free and fair food trade between all countries, developed and developing. National food legislation and food production, processing and marketing systems have evolved in most countries to ensure better quality and safer foods. At the international level the work of the FAO/ WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) and the World Trade Organization Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) and on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and related Uruguay Round agreements have been agreed to by over 140 countries with the aim to promoting the free and fair trade of good quality and safe foods between all countries. The SPS and TBT agreements rely on science-based Codex standards, guidelines, and recommendations as benchmarks for judging international food trade disputes. A number of non-tariff barriers to trade, often related to agricultural subsidies and other food trade payments in developed countries, continue to give rise to complaints to WTO. They also continue to prevent free and fair trade, particularly for developing countries in international food trade. A number of these non-tariff barriers to trade are briefly examined, along with other domestic and international food trade problems, and recommendations for improvements are made.     

International Risk Assessment Leading to Development of Food Safety Standards

The Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) provides the right to member countries trading in food commodities to take measures to protect plant, animal and human health. However, these measures cannot be arbitrary, but should be based on scientific risk assessments performed according to international standards. The agreement also requires countries to adopt international standards such as those developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission for food safety and by the World Animal Health Organization (OIE) for animal health. Scientific risk assessments required for development of food safety standards are performed by FAO/WHO. Some examples of food safety standards set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission based on risk assessments are microbiological criteria for Listeria monocytogenes in ready to eat foods and Guidelines for control of pathogenic Vibrio spp in sea foods.     

欧盟、国际食品法典和中国食品标签标准比较研究(Ⅱ)

本文通过对欧盟食品标签标准的主要法规、立法程序和立法原则进行介绍、将其与国际食品法典和中国食品标签标准比较,得出欧盟食品标签标准比国际食品法典(Codex)和中国的标准复杂、完备的结论。进而结合国际贸易中技术性贸易壁垒的背景,指出在欧盟等国家复杂详尽的食品标签标准背后是这些国家的标准对本国消费者的更好保护和对中国出口食品产业的技术优势。     

欧盟、国际食品法典和中国食品标签标准比较研究(Ⅰ)

本文通过对欧盟食品标签标准的主要法规、立法程序和立法原则进行介绍、将其与国际食品法典和中国食品标签标准比较,得出欧盟食品标签标准比国际食品法典(Codex)和中国的标准复杂、完备的结论。进而结合国际贸易中技术性贸易壁垒的背景,指出在欧盟等国家复杂详尽的食品标签标准背后是这些国家的标准对本国消费者的更好保护和对中国出口食品产业的技术优势。     

Risk analysis and the law: international law, the World Trade Organization, Codex Alimentarius and national legislation

This paper discusses the place of risk analysis in international trade from a US perspective, through looking at the activities of the World Trade Organization and the Codex Alimentarius Commission. After examining what the trade agreements say about risk analysis and how international bodies are advancing and using risk analysis, the paper goes on to assess how risk analysis is used at a national level. Finally, recommendations are made for strengthening international food safety initiatives.     

食品添加剂法典体系概况

世贸组织(WTO)的卫生与植物卫生措施应用协定(SPS协定)及贸易技术壁垒协定(TBT协定)均规定食品法典标准(CAC标准)为协调各国食品标准的基准,换言之,WTO在解决国际食品贸易争端中是以CAC标准为仲裁标准的。我国已经加入世贸组织,这就要求我们必须尽快调整修订我国的法规标准,使之与CAC标准一致,即“与国际标准接轨”,否则就可能在贸易争端中处于劣势。而且,随着食品工业的发展,食品添加剂的品种和使用范围(量)不断扩大,社会各界对现有标准进行修订的要求变得越来越迫切,卫生部门也表示,修订标准时将以CAC的标准作为重要参考依据。因此,为了使广大生产、使用、销售企业以及相关单位更加清晰地了解CAC中涉及食品添加剂的法规框架,本文进行了简要介绍。     

Food legislation and its harmonization in Russia

Bringing Russian legislation into compliance with international norms and standards is necessary after its accession to the World Trade Organization. Harmonization of food legislation and of sanitary and phytosanitary measures are among the problems that had to be solved first. Many Russian food and trade regulations had been changed or are still in the process of being reformed, largely owing to a policy of integration pursued by the Customs Union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. However, as a member of the Eurasian Economic Community, Russia is also engaged not only in harmonization throughout the Customs Union but also Kirgizstan and Tajikistan, and Armenia, Moldova and Ukraine as observer countries. Russia also continues to coordinate policy reforms closely with the European Union, its primary trade partner, ultimately bringing Russian food and sanitary norms closer to international standards (e.g. Codex). Today, all participants in the Russian food production chain, processing and sale of foods have to deal with growing numbers of security standards. Many organizations are certified under several schemes, which leads to unnecessary costs. Harmonization of standards has helped promote solutions in the domestic market as well as import–export of foods and raw materials for production. Priorities have included food safety for human health, consumer protection, removal of hazardous and/or adulterated products and increased competition within the domestic food market as well as mutual recognition of certification in bilateral and multilateral (inter)national agreements. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

食品法典标准与我国乳制品标准的比较分析

乳和乳品是中国近年来农产品生产、消费中比例较大的产品,但乳品工业在我国是一个新兴产业,由于整体基础薄弱,因此存在许多亟待解决的问题,其中尤其值得关注的是乳制品的标准问题。根据世界贸易组织(WTO)的协议,国际食品法典委员会(CAC)制定的法典规范或准则被视为衡量各国食品是否符合卫生、安全要求的尺度。本文通过将CAC法典中的第12卷《乳及乳制品法典标准》与我国乳制品标准进行五个方面的对比,分析了目前我国乳制品标准与CAC乳与乳制品标准的差异和其中存在的问题,并对我国乳制品标准的修改和制定提出建议。     

我国加入CAC后引发的思考和启迪

<正>全球食品安全形势相当令人担忧,主 要表现在食源性疾病不断上升,恶 性食品污染事件接二连三,世界经贸也 不断因食品安全问题引发纠纷,有鉴于 此,FAO和WHO以及世界各国均加强了 食品安全工作。 2000年,WHO第53届世界卫生大会 首次通过了“有关加强食品安全的决 议”。美国于1997年决定增拨一亿美元预 算,设立总统食品安全启动计划,1998年 组成了多部门的总统食品安全委员会。     

中国食品卫生标准与CAC标准接轨问题的探讨

为正确理解我国标准与CAC标准的关系 ,通过分析WTO相关协定中赋予成员的权利和义务 ,指出由于我国食品标准中的食物分类与CAC存在较大差别 ,我国人群膳食结构的特殊性 ,食品的污染水平 ,目前的实验室检测水平无法达到国际标准的要求以及特殊国情决定的特殊健康保护水平 ,我国食品卫生标准工作应积极参与国际法典委员会的工作 ,加强食源性危害的监测和膳食暴露评估研究 ,充分利用等同性认可、临时性措施 ,重视通报 ,根据WTO协定对成员的权利义务的要求 ,客观、科学、合理地制定既符合我国经济、技术发展状况又能保护消费者健康的食品卫生标准。     

2种常见浆果及其果酱制品的国内外食品安全标准限量分析

近年来,随着环保和健康意识的不断增强,国外技术性贸易壁垒越来越严格,发达国家对于进口产品的食品添加剂、农药残留等食品安全限量的要求也日趋严苛。为了打破我国浆果及其果酱制品出口的贸易壁垒,提高我国产品质量水平,亟需对国内外相关食品安全标准进行对比分析。本文通过将2种常见浆果及其果酱制品的国内外食品安全标准限量进行对比,发现我国食品安全标准与国际食品法典委员会标准、欧盟标准在对2种浆果的农药残留限量以及果酱制品的添加剂限量上存在的差异,以期为我国提升产品质量和安全水平提供参考,为我国出口企业的产品提供技术支撑和法律依据。     

A need for harmonized legislation: perspectives in South America

The harmonization of national food standards in South America has been undertaken by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay within the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR). Since food is among the most important commodities traded internationally, the harmonization of national food standards has been considered a priority. MERCOSUR countries have different laws governing food that are based, among other things, on historical, cultural and economic factors. Some regulations are complex and contain many controls while others are less developed and lack basic requirements. As a consequence, from the inception of preparing a common legislation through its adoption by the member countries, a long and difficult task has been foreseen. Although not immediately apparent, the difficulty in achieving consensus within MERCOSUR is not unlike that experience by the members of the European Union. Currently, food harmonization within MERCOSUR has been reached for issues where technical standards may represent serious trade barriers. These decisions have been based on Codex limentarius Commission guidelines and recommendations as well as on the European Union experience. This article will briefly discuss the current status of the MERCOSUR harmonization process with focus on issues related to food safety. A historical background of MERCOSUR and its institutional structure are included. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

International legislation on trace elements as contaminants in food: a review

Environmental contaminants such as trace elements may be present in all foods. Foods, raw materials and ingredients for food production are to an increasing extent traded across borders. Hence, there is a need for international legislation on trace elements as contaminants in food. In 1961, the FAO and WHO established the Codex Alimentarius to elaborate international food legislation. Contaminants in food are handled by the Codex Committee for Food Additives and Contaminants (CCFAC). The Codex Alimentarius system for developing legislation concerning trace elements as contaminants in food is based upon the Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food (GSCTF). By October 2001, the principles for setting maximum limits (MLs) for contaminants in food are agreed, and work is in progress on MLs for trace elements such as lead and cadmium in the various food categories. The status for the proposals is presented and discussed. The EU Regulation 466/2001 of 8 March 2001 sets MLs for lead and cadmium in various foods. This regulation will apply from 5 April 2002. The EU regulation is more detailed but similar to the Codex draft standards for lead and cadmium in food. In future, legislators and administrators in the Codex and EU and analytical chemists will discuss how to use more and better analytical data as risk-management tools to protect public health. Trace elements' speciation is an important aspect of this discussion.     

2002—2010年我国面临食品安全WTO/SPS特别贸易关注分析

研究我国在WTO/SPS例会的特别贸易关注议题下面临的与食品安全有关的贸易纠纷现状,提出完善机制的建议.利用WTO/SPS委员会秘书处散发的G/SPS/GEN/204/Rev.11、Rev.11A1、Rev.11A2和Rev.11A3号4份文件中与我国食品安全相关的特别贸易关注资料,运用Excel软件进行统计分析,并深入研究.2002-2010年间,SPS例会中与我国直接相关的食品安全特别贸易关注共有17项,其中我国向其他成员提出11项,其他成员向我国提出关注6项.另有5项我国作为支持方参与其他成员间的特别贸易关注.我国提出关注与被关注的WTO成员主要集中在欧盟、日本、美国等发达成员.农药残留限量是我国食品出口贸易中遇到的主要技术壁垒,食品中微生物限量、酒类产品标准等食品安全各领域逐渐成为我国受关注的主题.我国应建立和完善特别贸易关注的应对机制,完善WTO/SPS通报评议机制,加强与国内食品国际法典工作的沟通,提高我国在WTO/SPS例会中应对和提出特别贸易关注的能力.     

中国与国际食品法典委员会动物食品兽药残留标准的比对分析

目的 对中国现行的新兽药残留标准与国际食品法典委员会的兽药残留限量指标进行比对,并对结果进行分析。方法 对我国标准与国际食品法典委员会标准中规定的兽药种类、涉及的物种及部位、残留限量进行逐级比对。我国兽药限量相关标准为GB 31650-2019《食品安全国家标准食品中兽药最大残留限量》,以及农业农村部公告第250号;国际食品法典委员会标准为CX/MRL 2–2018《食品中兽药残留的最大残留限量和风险管理建议》。结果 在可比指标中,我国与国际食品法典委员会限量相同的指标有316个,占全部可比指标的94.3%;我国比国际食品法典委员会更为严格的兽药残留限量指标有12个,占全部可比指标的3.6%;我国比国际食品法典委员会标准宽松的指标有7个,占可比指标总数的2.1%。结论 我国动物食品中兽药残留标准中,97.9%的可比指标达到或超过国际食品法典委员会标准规定。     

Microbiological risk assessment in Europe: the next decade

Under the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures that came into force in 1995, it was stipulated that all World Trade Organisation (WTO) members are required to ensure that their sanitary and phytosanitary measures are based on assessment of the risks to human, animal or plant life or health. In doing so, they must take into account risk assessment techniques developed by relevant international organisations. WHO and FAO are two such international organisations that are of very high standard and influence. Their executive body, the Codex Alimentarius Commission has developed the concept of Microbiological Risk Assessment (MRA) in a wider framework called Risk Analysis. The aim of Risk Analysis is to provide a global standard for the interpretation of the acceptability of risks associated to foods to which consumers might be exposed. Microbiological Risk Assessment is an essential element of Risk Analysis because it specifies risks related to pathogenic micro-organisms in the food chain on the basis of sound science, combining qualitative and quantitative data in the areas of epidemiology and pathogenicity of micro-organisms with food production and handling. The concept is still in its infancy but is gaining wide acceptance globally. This paper will describe an inventory of MRA developments in Europe carried out under auspicion of the European Commission. It also gives the results of a literature survey concerning scientific publications on the topic MRA in which the activities in Europe are compared to those elsewhere.     

国内外柑橘中农药最大残留限量标准的比较分析

该文系统整理了我国即将发布的GB 2763—2021《食品安全国家标准食品中农药最大残留限量》中涉及柑橘的农药最大残留限量,分析比较了我国与国际食品法典委员会、欧盟、俄罗斯、越南、埃及和南非相关最新限量标准的主要差异,得到我国与对比的主要国际组织及进出口国在柑橘农药种类和最大残留限量上的异同。最后,指出了农药残留限量标准体系和配套检测标准等方面存在的问题,旨在为相关标准的制定和修改提供建议,为指导柑橘生产和加工、扩大柑橘产业国际贸易优势和促进柑橘产业的安全发展提供参考依据。     

Harmonization of legislation and regulations to achieve food safety: US and Canada perspective

Trade in food and food ingredients among the nations of the world is rapidly expanding and, with this expansion, new supply chain partners, from globally disparate geographic regions, are being enrolled. Food and food ingredients are progressively sourced more from lesser developed nations. Food safety incidents in the USA and Canada show a high unfavorable correlation between illness outbreaks and imported foods. In the USA, for example, foodborne disease outbreaks caused by imported food appeared to rise in 2009 and 2010, and nearly half of the outbreaks, associated with imported food, implicated foods imported from areas which previously had not been associated with outbreaks. Projecting supply chains into new geographical regions raises serious questions about the capacity of the new supply chain partners to provide the requisite regulatory framework and sufficiently robust public health measures for ensuring the safety of the foods and foodstuffs offered for international trade. The laws, regulation and legislation among the many nations participating in the global food trade are, at best, inconsistent. These inconsistencies frequently give rise to trade disputes and cause large quantities of food to be at risk of destruction on the often dubious pretext that they are not safe. Food safety is often viewed through a political or normative lens. Often as not, this lens has been wrought absent scientific precision. Harmonization of food safety legislation around sound scientific principles, as advocated by the US Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), would ultimately promote trade and likely provide for incremental improvement in public health. Among the priority roles of most national governments are the advancement of commerce and trade, preservation of public health and ensuring domestic tranquility. Achieving these priorities is fundamental to creating and preserving the wealth of nations. Countries such as the Netherlands, Canada, Germany, Japan and the USA, for example, have very stable governments, are leaders in trade and commerce and enjoy high standards of public health. It is not by accident or coincidence that these nations are also among the world's wealthiest. Attainment of national priorities, especially those related to promoting trade in foodstuffs and also in preserving public health (food safety), would benefit greatly from international efforts in harmonizing food safety regulations and legislation. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

国内外食品添加剂管理的法规标准状况及分析(待续)

介绍美国、加拿大、欧盟、澳大利亚、日本、中国及国际食品法典委员会不同的食品添加剂管理模式和法规标准概况 ,着重从不同的食品添加剂范畴、评价要求、使用规定以及标识等方面进行分析比较 ,为加强我国食品添加剂管理以及与国际相关标准接轨提供参考和建议。     

我国食品卫生标准与国际食品法典标准的比较

<正>在我国食品卫生标准工作中,结合我国实际采用国际先进标准,一直是加速我国食品卫生标准建设的重要手段。但是,在各项国际食品标准中,由于国际食品法典委员会(下称CAC)作为联合国政府间组织的特殊地位,以及该委员会制定的国际食品法典标准(下称CAC标准)在WTO事务中所具有的特殊作用,采用CAC标准显得更为