Achieving multiple benefits from stormwater harvesting.

As the concept of integrated urban water management is incorporated into the practice of urban water servicing, new options, such as stormwater harvesting, which can have multiple benefits, are of increasing interest. The multi-functional benefits of stormwater harvesting include the potential to enhance urban stream health through improvements to the flow regime as well as providing a valuable water supply source. This paper synthesises a current research programme being undertaken to assess the viability of, and develop recommendations for, stormwater harvesting. The design of the collection, treatment, storage, flood protection, and distribution components of an integrated system are each discussed, along with the environmental flow consequences of urban stormwater harvesting. The incorporation of swales and biofilters into the collection system was not found to lead to significant exfiltration and evaporation losses in most circumstances and so can be employed as part of the treatment train. Further treatment can be provided by WSUD-type biophysical measures such as ponds, wetlands or novelly designed biofilters or physio-chemical treatment processes. Depending on the design, the stormwater storage component may or may not provide flood protection. In many circumstances, the storage capacity requirements are not considered to be a barrier to stormwater harvesting.     

Stormwater harvesting and WSUD frequent flow management: a compatibility analysis

Harvesting stormwater from urban catchments provides a supplementary water resource and, due to the physical abstraction of polluted water, also leads to environmental benefits. These benefits include the reduction of frequent ecosystem disturbance during small storms and less waterway erosion; hydrological impacts which are currently addressed by Water Sensitive Urban Design guidelines for stormwater frequent flow management (FFM). Although FFM and stormwater harvesting share the same store-release behaviour, they have a very different underlying basis to their design and operation. This paper explores the level of compatibility between these two systems and hence the potential for their integration. It was found by water balance analysis that the harvesting storage required to maximise most yields is similar to the recommended storage volume for FFM. This analysis was performed for a temperate-climate location in South East Queensland under historically low rainfalls. Environmental benefits associated with runoff quantity and pollutant load reductions are highest when the capture storage is rapidly emptied after storms.     

Analysis and Modelling of Stormwater Volume Control Performance of Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Four Climatic Zones of China

Rainwater harvesting has been widely used to alleviate urban water scarcity and waterlogging problems. In this study, a water balance model is developed to continuously simulate the long-term (57 to 65 years) stormwater capture efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems for three water demand scenarios at four cities across four climatic zones of China. The impacts of the “yield after spillage” (YAS) and “yield before spillage” (YBS) operating algorithms, climatic conditions, and storage and demand fractions on stormwater capture efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems are analyzed. The YAS algorithm, compared with the YBS, results in more conservative estimations of stormwater capture efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems with relatively small storage tanks (e.g., ≤50 m³). The difference between stormwater capture efficiency calculated using the YBS and YAS algorithms can be remedied by increasing storage capacity and reduced by decreasing water demand rates. Higher stormwater capture efficiency can be achieved for rainwater harvesting systems with higher storage and demand fractions and located in regions with less rainfall. However, the lager variations in annual rainfall in arid zones may lead to unstable stormwater management performance of rainwater harvesting systems. The impacts of storage and demand fractions on stormwater capture efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems are interactive and dependent on climatic conditions. Based on the relationships among storage capacity, contributing area, water demand, and stormwater capture efficiency of rainwater harvesting systems, easy-to-use equations are proposed for the hydrologic design of rainwater harvesting systems to meet specific stormwater control requirements at the four cities.     

沭水东调工程跨流域水库群联合供水研究

在分析日照市沭水东调工程特点的基础上,以城市供水量最大、水库弃水量最小为目标建立了多目标跨流域水库群联合供水调度模型。同时,将遗传算法嵌套于长系列变动时历法中,对工程涉及的沭河流域青峰岭、小仕阳、峤山水库以及傅疃河流域日照水库进行联合供水调算,探讨沭河流域各水库的可调限制库容和日照水库需水动态限制库容等调水指标。结果表明,水库群联合供水较各水库单独供水可增加利用沭河水量939万m3,反映了水库群联合调度有助于充分挖掘沭河流域各水库的供水潜力,对解决日照市区供水缺口十分有利。     

A flexible modelling environment for integrated urban water harvesting and re-use

The steady increase of urban population and the possible effects of climate change that may adversely affect the amount of water available in current water supply systems, makes the study of stormwater and rainwater harvesting and wastewater recycling a high priority. The basic proposition is that any system of water supply that can reduce the amount of water drawn from main reservoirs will be of benefit to the whole supply region especially in terms of drought security. This paper describes a versatile modelling framework which can simulate a wide variety of combinations of centralised and decentralised Integrated Urban Water Management schemes from the allotment to the whole suburb scale. The framework combines two modelling approaches. The first, called urbanCycle, simulates water supply and demand, stormwater and wastewater using allotments as the basic building block. Although urbanCycle can simulate processes in great detail, it assumes that the network forms a directed acyclic graph. This simplifies the connectivity logic but precludes investigation of systems with decentralised storage, feedbacks and multiple supply paths. To overcome this, a second model, called urbanNet, based on network linear programming, is embedded in the urbanCycle framework to enable the modelling of recycling and harvesting options, as well as on-the-fly supply and demand decision making, based on objectives rather than pre-set operating rules.     

海绵型公园雨水控制分析计算方法——以成都市活水公园为例

海绵城市建设中,为了实现对雨水控制的定量计算,若采用模型模拟需要详实的数据基础,推广起来存在诸多问题。本文以径流系数为主要分析手段,运用较为简便的方法对成都市活水公园进行海绵型公园改造前后的雨水控制各项指标做了定量计算,利用芝加哥雨型进行雨量分配,对改造前后公园外排水流量进行对比分析,结果表明进行海绵型公园改造后,5年一遇降雨外排水流量削峰率达74%,峰现时间延后25min。外排水流量径流系数为0.278,年径流总量控制率大于85%。对3年和5年重现期的雨水控制效果均较好。此计算方法可用于面积不大的海绵城市试点区域或海绵型公园的雨水控制计算,所需数据量小,操作性强,具有可重复性和实用价值。可对海绵城市建设中的雨水控制指标计算提供一定参考。     

Microbial challenge-testing of treatment processes for quantifying stormwater recycling risks and management.

Pathogenic microorganisms have been identified as the main human health risks associated with the reuse of treated urban stormwater (runoff from paved and unpaved urban areas). As part of the Smart Water initiative (Victorian Government, Australia), a collaborative evaluation of three existing integrated stormwater recycling systems, and the risks involved in non-potable reuse of treated urban stormwater is being undertaken. Three stormwater recycling systems were selected at urban locations to provide a range of barriers including biofiltration, storage tanks, UV disinfection, a constructed wetland, and retention ponds. Recycled water from each of the systems is used for open space irrigation. In order to adequately undertake exposure assessments, it was necessary to quantify the efficacy of key barriers in each exposure pathway. Given that none of the selected treatment systems had previously been evaluated for their treatment efficiency, experimental work was carried out comprising dry and wet weather monitoring of each system (for a period of 12 months), as well as challenging the barriers with model microbes (for viruses, bacteria and parasitic protozoa) to provide input data for use in Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment.     

Is stormwater harvesting beneficial to urban waterway environmental flows?

Urbanization degrades the hydrology and water quality of waterways. Changes to flow regimes include increased frequency of surface runoff, increased peak flows and an increase in total runoff. At the same time, water use in many cities is approaching, and in some cases exceeding, sustainable limits. Stormwater harvesting has the potential to mitigate a number of these detrimental impacts. However, excessive harvesting of stormwater could also be detrimental to stream health. Therefore, a study was undertaken to test whether typical stormwater harvesting scenarios could meet the dual objectives of (i) supplying urban water requirements, and (ii) restoring the flow regime as close as possible to 'natural' (pre-developed). Melbourne and Brisbane, which have different climates, were used along with three land use scenarios (low, medium and high density). Modelling was undertaken for a range of flow and water quality indicators. The results show that using these typical harvesting scenarios helped to bring flow and water quality back towards their pre-developed levels. In some cases, however, harvesting resulted in an over-extraction of flow, demonstrating the need for optimizing the harvesting strategy to meet both supply and environmental flow objectives. The results show that urban stormwater harvesting is a potential strategy for achieving both water conservation and environmental flows.     

坪底供水工程供水规模调整设计

随着石楼县经济发展供水任务增加,坪底供水工程原设计供水规模难以满足工业和生活用水需求,因此,需对该供水工程规模进行调整。经计算,该工程年供水量650万m~3,供水保证率95%,供水流量0.3m~3/s;工程总库容744万m~3,调蓄池容积120万m~3。     

潮州供水枢纽西溪电站出力研究

潮州供水枢纽工程在2010年蓄水至正常蓄水位10.5 m后,西溪电站双机满发运行未能达到额定出力。该文通过水工模型试验,验证了以下3种工程处理措施对增加电站出力的作用:进水渠右侧导墙墙顶高程由6.0 m降低至3.5 m(与拦沙坎同高)、进水渠右侧导墙在高程8.5~10.5 m开直径为2 m的导流孔(轴线间隔4 m,孔口外侧装设拦污隔栅)、尾水渠右侧导墙墙顶高程降低至0.5 m,并在此基础上进行了多个进、出水渠方案布置的出力比较试验,分析了双机运行时电站出力不足的原因(主要原因为:实际工作水头不能满足选定机组的工作水头),提出了满足双机发电运行要求的推荐方案布置,试验研究成果可供工程设计和运行管理参考。     

Inadequacy of Land Use and Impervious Area Fraction for Determining Urban Stormwater Quality

Urban stormwater quality is multifaceted and the use of a limited number of factors to represent catchment characteristics may not be adequate to explain the complexity of water quality response to a rainfall event or site-to-site differences in stormwater quality modelling. This paper presents the outcomes of a research study which investigated the adequacy of using land use and impervious area fraction only, to represent catchment characteristics in urban stormwater quality modelling. The research outcomes confirmed the inadequacy of the use of these two parameters alone to represent urban catchment characteristics in stormwater quality prediction. Urban form also needs to be taken into consideration as it was found have an important impact on stormwater quality by influencing pollutant generation, build-up and wash-off. Urban form refers to characteristics related to an urban development such as road layout, spatial distribution of urban areas and urban design features.     

Implications to stormwater management as a result of lot scale rainwater tank systems: a case study in Western Sydney, Australia

Rainwater tanks are increasingly adopted in Australia to reduce potable water demand and are perceived to reduce the volume of stormwater discharge from developments. This paper investigates the water balance of rainwater tanks, in particular the possible impacts these tanks could have in controlling the stormwater discharge volume. The study collected water quantity data from two sites in the Hawkesbury City Council area, New South Wales, Australia and utilised the collected data in a simple water balance model to assess the effectiveness of rainwater tanks in reducing the stormwater discharge volume. The results indicate that a significant reduction in discharge volume from a lot scale development can be achieved if the rainwater tank is connected to multiple end-uses, but is minimal when using irrigation alone. In addition, the commonly used volumetric runoff coefficient of 0.9 was found to over-estimate the runoff from the roof areas and to thereby under-estimate the available volume within the rainwater tanks for retention or detention. Also, sole reliance on the water in the rainwater tanks can make the users aware of their water use pattern and water availability, resulting in significant reductions in water use as the supply dwindles, through self-imposed water restrictions.     

流域设计枯水流量分析计算方法

流域枯水流量的大小,主要依赖于流域蓄水量的补给;同时随着流域蓄水量的减少,枯水流量也不断衰减。流域枯水流量与河道通航、城乡供水、水电厂与火电厂设计(运行)和生态环境质量等密切相关。流域枯水流量虽不如洪涝和地震等自然灾害与人类的关系那么剧烈,但它可严重制约工农业生产的发展和人类生活质量的提高。本文详细介绍了流域设计枯水流量分析计算涵盖的枯水调查与资料收集、枯水流量资料的审查与处理、具有实测资料时设计枯水流量的计算、资料不足时设计枯水流量的估算、缺乏资料时设计枯水流量的确定以及设计枯水流量成果的分析论证等6部分内容,以供从事河道航运、城乡供水和环境保护等部门工程技术人员参考,以利于经济社会更好地发展。     

Macrophyte zonation in stormwater wetlands: getting it right! A case study from subtropical Australia.

In Australia stormwater wetlands are becoming an increasingly popular component of water sensitive urban design. However, they must be designed to cope with the dynamic nature of urban hydrology, in particular, fluctuations in water level. The concept of macrophyte zonation relies on a thorough understanding of the water regimes of different plant species. Water depth is crucial and the hydroperiod, i.e. duration and frequency of inundation, has a significant impact on the survival of wetland vegetation. The aim of this study was to investigate plant establishment in a newly constructed stormwater wetland in Brisbane, subtropical Australia. Changes in plant distribution and density have been monitored since 2001. Rainfall and water depth data enabled us to use a hydrologic model to predict the extent of inundation of the different macrophytes zones. The field survey showed macrophyte survival was poor with the complete loss of several species in marsh and ephemeral zones. The main reason for the lack of macrophyte establishment and survival was the extended periods of inundation (supported by the hydrologic model) and deeper water levels. Stormwater wetlands must be designed to ensure that ephemeral species are not permanently inundated or the preferred water depths in marsh zones are not exceeded for extended periods.     

黔中水利枢纽工程低温水的环境保护措施

黔中水利枢纽工程是集灌溉、城市供水、发电、县城和乡镇供水、人畜饮水为一体的综合利用项目.由于水源工程的拦河大坝高达162.7 m,水库蓄水后将形成分层型水温结构,低于水库水面14m以下的库水将对灌区一定范围的农作物生长产生不利影响.黔中水利枢纽工程在大坝设计中采取了分层取水方案,为解决具有较大消落深度的大中型水库低温水...     

Stormwater Capture Efficiency of Bioretention Systems

Bioretention systems are increasingly being used to control the adverse effects of urbanization on stormwater quantity and quality. The stormwater capture efficiency of a bioretention system, defined as the fraction of stormwater volume captured by the system, can be used as an important index of its stormwater management performance. In this paper, an analytical probabilistic expression (APE) is derived for estimating the long-term average stormwater capture efficiency of bioretention systems. The derivation is based on the probability distribution functions of the input rainfall event characteristics and the rainfall-runoff-overflow transformations occurring on a bioretention system and its contributing catchment. In the derivation, instead of simply adopting the Howard’s conservative assumption as used in many previous studies, an approximate expected value of the surface depression water contents of a bioretention system at the end of a random rainfall event [denoted as E(S _dw )] is derived and used. The accuracy of the resulting APE is verified by comparing its results with those determined from continuous simulations. The use of E(S _dw ) is proven to be advantageous than the use of the Howard’s conservative assumption, it demonstrates that similar methods may be developed to analytically evaluate the stormwater management performance of other types of storage facilities for which the Howard’s conservative assumption was employed previously.     

Alternative Water Resources for Rural Residential Development in Western Australia

Rainwater collected from residential roofs and greywater generated from domestic uses except toilets are viewed as possible substitutes for high grade water sources which supply nonpotable indoor uses and irrigation in Australia. This paper searches for alternatives by adopting roofwater and greywater in residential envelope as per Australian water standards. A water balance model Aquacycle was applied to determine storage capacities and to evaluate the percentage reduction in water supplying, stormwater run-off and wastewater disposal, as well as volume of rainwater use and greywater reuse. This study provides the results of greywater recycling, which contributes to the greater saving of mains water supply than rainwater use, and which reduces more than half of the wastewater to receiving waters in the rural township of Cranbrook, Western Australia. The results of this study provide greywater usage (maximum reduction 32.5%) more significantly reduces scheme water supply than rainwater harvesting (maximum reduction 25.1%). Use of greywater on individual residential lots has the dramatic effect for drainage system by reduction approximately 54.1% or 88.1 m³/lot/year. The results of rainwater use analysis show explicitly that rainwater tanks are much more effective in intercepting roof runoff, with the maximum stormwater reduction 48.1% or 68.3 m³/lot/year. This research endeavours to offer a typical paradigm for an integrated water system in the rural residential sectors.     

城市绿色道路及雨洪控制利用策略研究

城市雨洪控制利用措施与城市发展及基础设施建设的不协调,导致城市化过程中水环境退化,产生严重的水涝、径流污染、地下水位下降等城市水环境和生态问题.道路作为城市的主要下垫面和重要的排水通道,雨水问题十分突出.针对我国传统道路排水的主要问题,总结国内外道路雨洪控制利用新思路——基于LID/GSI的绿色道路,结合我国研究现状,提出我国城市道路雨洪控制利用策略,并以杭州余杭塘立交为例,分析道路雨洪控制利用措施的应用.     

城市应急备用水源需求和规模确定方法研究

目前我国水污染事故频发,单一水源城市缺少应急水源储备,应急供水设施的建设缺乏有效性和针对性,正在实施的《城市给水工程规划规范》中尚无应急供水系统规划的相关内容.因此亟需开展城市应急供水规划调控技术方法的研究,总结城市应急供水系统规划的关键指标,指导城市应急供水系统规划.以广东省东莞市为例,重点研究了城市应急备用水源的需求和规模确定方法.东莞市作为单一水源城市,其常规水源存在有机物或重金属突发污染风险,需建设应急备用水源.分析确定东莞市极限最低应急需水量为65万m3/d,正常供水情况下备用水源规模至少应为1 059万m3;压缩水量供水情况下,应急调蓄设施规模至少应为195万m3.