State-space aerodynamic model reveals high force control authority and predictability in flapping flight

Flying animals resort to fast, large-degree-of-freedom motion of flapping wings, a key feature that distinguishes them from rotary or fixed-winged robotic fliers with limited motion of aerodynamic surfaces. However, flapping-wing aerodynamics are characterized by highly unsteady and three-dimensional flows difficult to model or control, and accurate aerodynamic force predictions often rely on expensive computational or experimental methods. Here, we developed a computationally efficient and data-driven state-space model to dynamically map wing kinematics to aerodynamic forces/moments. This model was trained and tested with a total of 548 different flapping-wing motions and surpassed the accuracy and generality of the existing quasi-steady models. This model used 12 states to capture the unsteady and nonlinear fluid effects pertinent to force generation without explicit information of fluid flows. We also provided a comprehensive assessment of the control authority of key wing kinematic variables and found that instantaneous aerodynamic forces/moments were largely predictable by the wing motion history within a half-stroke cycle. Furthermore, the angle of attack, normal acceleration and pitching motion had the strongest effects on the aerodynamic force/moment generation. Our results show that flapping flight inherently offers high force control authority and predictability, which can be key to developing agile and stable aerial fliers.     

Flutter boundary prediction of an adaptive morphing wing for unmanned aerial vehicle

We have developed a novel morphing wing design for UAV that makes use of shape memory alloys as actuators. The advantages of the novel design have already been addressed in earlier publications by Meguid and his collaborators. Because of the flexibility of the wing, it is highly desirable to investigate flutter instability. This study addresses flutter instability for our novel morphing wing at low speed considering different morphing wing configurations. Structural dynamics of the wing is obtained using lumped mass method and unsteady aerodynamic based on strip model is used to evaluate the aerodynamic forces and moments. Flutter boundary was predicted using p-k method. The results indicate that the newly designed flexible concept of the morphing wing increases the critical flutter velocity.     

超声速旋转火箭弹气动流场的微楔控制

超声速弹箭表面的流体分离是影响飞行稳定的主要影响因素之一。研究表明,微楔涡流发生器可有效控制超声速流体边界层的流动分离。该文基于制式122火箭弹,通过在弹肩前端安装微楔来研究边界层流动分离控制对火箭弹气动性能的影响。运用DES方法数值模拟了122火箭弹在有无加装微楔条件下的流场变化,对比分析了微楔对弹体表面边界层结构以及弹气动数据的改变,讨论了微楔对弹的气动力及稳定性作用。数值结果表明,微楔可以抑制弹体表面流体分离,提高火箭弹的升力及俯仰力矩,减小马格努斯力矩,有利于提高其飞行稳定性及射击精度,可为相关旋转火箭弹的改进提供指导。     

Surface pressure model for simple delta wings at high angles of attack

A new aerodynamic modelling approach is proposed for the longitudinal static characteristics of a simple delta wing. It captures the static variation of normal force and pitching moment characteristics throughout the angle of attack range. The pressure model is based on parametrizing the surface pressure distribution on a simple delta wing. The model is then extended to a wing/body combination where body-alone data are also available. The model is shown to be simple and consistent with experimental data. The pressure model can be used as a first approximation for the load estimation on the delta wing at high angles of attack.     

Complete morphing wing design using flexible-rib system

This study is concerned with the complete design, analysis, functional prototyping and flight testing of a novel morphing wing system for use in a relatively small (<10 kg) unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). To achieve improved flight performance with limited weight penalty, camber-adjustable morphing wing was designed using flexible servomotor-actuated mechanisms. The current design, which was originally conceptualized by Monner et al. (Smart structures and materials: industrial and commercial applications of smart structures technologies. Proceedings of SPIE 3326, pp 60–70, 1998), ensures that the airfoil shape of the wing is able to continuously morph between the non-cambered and the cambered configurations. The morphing function of the wing is achieved using a flexible-rib system driven by onboard servomotor-rocker. This unique design of a flexible-rib assembly enables the airfoil of the wing to be accurately morphed to the target configuration. With the aid of aerodynamic and finite element analyses, the flexible rib assembly performance and structural integrity are evaluated and assessed. The design process was in compliance with aircraft design standards, including the Federal Aviation Regulations—Part 23. The functional prototype of the flexible rib morphing-wing enabled UAV was manufactured and assembled and a test plane was ground tested. The success of the entire project, including flight testing of the flexible rib assembly is summarized in this paper.     

Scaling law and enhancement of lift generation of an insect-size hovering flexible wing

We report a comprehensive scaling law and novel lift generation mechanisms relevant to the aerodynamic functions of structural flexibility in insect flight. Using a Navier–Stokes equation solver, fully coupled to a structural dynamics solver, we consider the hovering motion of a wing of insect size, in which the dynamics of fluid–structure interaction leads to passive wing rotation. Lift generated on the flexible wing scales with the relative shape deformation parameter, whereas the optimal lift is obtained when the wing deformation synchronizes with the imposed translation, consistent with previously reported observations for fruit flies and honeybees. Systematic comparisons with rigid wings illustrate that the nonlinear response in wing motion results in a greater peak angle compared with a simple harmonic motion, yielding higher lift. Moreover, the compliant wing streamlines its shape via camber deformation to mitigate the nonlinear lift-degrading wing–wake interaction to further enhance lift. These bioinspired aeroelastic mechanisms can be used in the development of flapping wing micro-robots.     

Stable hovering of a jellyfish-like flying machine

Ornithopters, or flapping-wing aircraft, offer an alternative to helicopters in achieving manoeuvrability at small scales, although stabilizing such aerial vehicles remains a key challenge. Here, we present a hovering machine that achieves self-righting flight using flapping wings alone, without relying on additional aerodynamic surfaces and without feedback control. We design, construct and test-fly a prototype that opens and closes four wings, resembling the motions of swimming jellyfish more so than any insect or bird. Measurements of lift show the benefits of wing flexing and the importance of selecting a wing size appropriate to the motor. Furthermore, we use high-speed video and motion tracking to show that the body orientation is stable during ascending, forward and hovering flight modes. Our experimental measurements are used to inform an aerodynamic model of stability that reveals the importance of centre-of-mass location and the coupling of body translation and rotation. These results show the promise of flapping-flight strategies beyond those that directly mimic the wing motions of flying animals.     

Nonlinear time-periodic models of the longitudinal flight dynamics of desert locusts Schistocerca gregaria.

Previous studies of insect flight control have been statistical in approach, simply correlating wing kinematics with body kinematics or force production. Kinematics and forces are linked by Newtonian mechanics, so adopting a dynamics-based approach is necessary if we are to place the study of insect flight on its proper physical footing. Here we develop semi-empirical models of the longitudinal flight dynamics of desert locusts Schistocerca gregaria. We use instantaneous force-moment measurements from individual locusts to parametrize the nonlinear rigid body equations of motion. Since the instantaneous forces are approximately periodic, we represent them using Fourier series, which are embedded in the equations of motion to give a nonlinear time-periodic (NLTP) model. This is a proper mathematical generalization of an earlier linear-time invariant (LTI) model of locust flight dynamics, developed using previously published time-averaged versions of the instantaneous force recordings. We perform various numerical simulations, within the fitted range of the model, and across the range of body angles used by free-flying locusts, to explore the likely behaviour of the locusts upon release from the tether. Solutions of the NLTP models are compared with solutions of the nonlinear time-invariant (NLTI) models to which they reduce when the periodic terms are dropped. Both sets of models are unstable and therefore fail to explain locust flight stability fully. Nevertheless, whereas the measured forces include statistically significant harmonic content up to about the eighth harmonic, the simulated flight trajectories display no harmonic content above the fundamental forcing frequency. Hence, manoeuvre control in locusts will not directly reflect subtle changes in the higher harmonics of the wing beat, but must operate on a coarser time-scale. A state-space analysis of the NLTP models reveals orbital trajectories that are impossible to capture in the LTI and NLTI models, and inspires the hypothesis that asymptotic orbital stability is the proper definition of stability in flapping flight. Manoeuvre control on the scale of more than one wing beat would then consist in exciting transients from one asymptotically stable orbit to another. We summarize these hypotheses by proposing a limit-cycle analogy for flapping flight control and suggest experiments for verification of the limit-cycle control analogy hypothesis.     

射流控制条件下超声速尾翼弹的气动特性

研究表明,主动式射流涡流发生器可有效控制超声速流动边界层的分离,且能根据实际情况进行自适应调节。该文基于制式122尾翼弹,通过在弹肩前端加装射流涡发生器控制边界层的流动分离,研究其对尾翼弹气动性能的影响。采用DES方法数值模拟了超声速条件下尾翼弹有无射流控制的流场变化情况,分析了加装射流前后尾翼弹表面流体边界层结构及其气动性能的变化规律。数值结果表明,射流控制可有效抑制弹体表面的流体分离,提高尾翼弹的升力与俯仰力矩、减少弹身震动,有利于提高其飞行稳定性及打击精度,可为超声速尾翼弹的改进提供指导。     

Improvement of the aerodynamic performance by wing flexibility and elytra–hind wing interaction of a beetle during forward flight

In this work, the aerodynamic performance of beetle wing in free-forward flight was explored by a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) simulation with measured wing kinematics. It is shown from the CFD results that twist and camber variation, which represent the wing flexibility, are most important when determining the aerodynamic performance. Twisting wing significantly increased the mean lift and camber variation enhanced the mean thrust while the required power was lower than the case when neither was considered. Thus, in a comparison of the power economy among rigid, twisting and flexible models, the flexible model showed the best performance. When the positive effect of wing interaction was added to that of wing flexibility, we found that the elytron created enough lift to support its weight, and the total lift (48.4 mN) generated from the simulation exceeded the gravity force of the beetle (47.5 mN) during forward flight.     

基于翼尖支撑和螺旋桨独立支撑的螺旋桨滑流影响实验研究

螺旋桨滑流对飞机的升力系数、阻力系数、俯仰力矩系数有着非常重要的影响,该文通过风洞实验方法,探索螺旋桨滑流对飞机气动特性影响的规律。与目前国内常用的全机带动力实验不同,该文结合西北工业大学NF-3低速风洞的翼尖支撑测量系统和螺旋桨及短舱独立支撑机构开展研究,研究了桨叶角、前进比和拉力系数对螺旋桨滑流效果的影响。研究表明:螺旋桨滑流效果主要取决于其拉力系数,飞机升力系数随螺旋桨拉力系数的增大而增大,阻力系数和俯仰力矩系数随螺旋桨拉力系数的增大而减小。     

扑翼空气动力学研究进展与应用

昆虫、鸟类与蝙蝠等生物具有高超的飞行能力,是扑翼飞行器的主要模仿对象。近年来,扑翼空气动力学领域的研究取得了很大进展,该文主要对其主要研究成果进行综述,重点介绍扑翼空气动力学各研究方向的最新进展,包括昆虫、鸟类与蝙蝠扑翼的主要升力机制,翅膀形态学参数与微观结构、翅膀柔性与动态变形、翼-翼干扰、翼-身干扰、个体间干扰及地面效应等对扑翼气动特性的影响。同时还对仿生扑翼飞行器气动研究的新进展进行了介绍,并提出了扑翼空气动力学所面临的主要问题和挑战。     

基于多项式修正片条气动力的跨音速颤振分析方法及其试验验证

提出一种基于多项式修正片条气动力的跨音速颤振分析方法,以片条内升力和力矩随攻角变化斜率为修正目标,采用多项式方程模拟片条力矩分布,使整个翼面的气动力大小和分布都与目标相符,进而使用修正后的气动力进行跨音速区的颤振分析.计算结果经跨音速颤振风洞试验验证,该方法对翼吊发动机构型的机翼颤振型、带操纵面的尾翼颤振型都有较高的计...     

扑翼飞行器气动力测量技术研究进展与展望

扑翼飞行器是一种仿照鸟类飞行的新概念小型无人飞行器,区别于传统固定翼和旋翼飞行器,它主要通过机翼扑动与空气相互作用来提供飞行动力,从而实现飞行器的姿态变动。扑翼飞行器气动特性测试的实质是揭示在非定常流场环境下,扑翼飞行器气动力的产生机制,以及相关扑翼飞行器设计参数对气动特性的影响。通过气动试验方法为扑翼飞行器飞行控制和结构优化等研制工作提供数据支持,将对新型扑翼飞行器理论研究以及飞控品质的提升起到巨大的推动作用。     

Insect-like flapping wing mechanism based on a double spherical Scotch yoke

We describe the rationale, concept, design and implementation of a fixed-motion (non-adjustable) mechanism for insect-like flapping wing micro air vehicles in hover, inspired by two-winged flies (Diptera). This spatial (as opposed to planar) mechanism is based on the novel idea of a double spherical Scotch yoke. The mechanism was constructed for two main purposes: (i) as a test bed for aeromechanical research on hover in flapping flight, and (ii) as a precursor design for a future flapping wing micro air vehicle. Insects fly by oscillating (plunging) and rotating (pitching) their wings through large angles, while sweeping them forwards and backwards. During this motion the wing tip approximately traces a "figure-of-eight" or a "banana" and the wing changes the angle of attack (pitching) significantly. The kinematic and aerodynamic data from free-flying insects are sparse and uncertain, and it is not clear what aerodynamic consequences different wing motions have. Since acquiring the necessary kinematic and dynamic data from biological experiments remains a challenge, a synthetic, controlled study of insect-like flapping is not only of engineering value, but also of biological relevance. Micro air vehicles are defined as flying vehicles approximately 150 mm in size (hand-held), weighing 50-100g, and are developed to reconnoitre in confined spaces (inside buildings, tunnels, etc.). For this application, insect-like flapping wings are an attractive solution and hence the need to realize the functionality of insect flight by engineering means. Since the semi-span of the insect wing is constant, the kinematics are spatial; in fact, an approximate figure-of-eight/banana is traced on a sphere. Hence a natural mechanism implementing such kinematics should be (i) spherical and (ii) generate mathematically convenient curves expressing the figure-of-eight/banana shape. The double spherical Scotch yoke design has property (i) by definition and achieves (ii) by tracing spherical Lissajous curves.     

Aeroelastic response of 2-D lifting surfaces to gust and arbitrary explosive loading signatures

The aeroelastic response to time-dependent external excitation of a two-dimensional rigid/elastic-lifting surface in incompressible flow field featuring plunging – pitching coupled motion is addressed in this paper. The expressions of the unsteady aerodynamic lift and moment in the time domain are given in terms of the Wagner's function, while the gust loads are given in terms of the Küssner's function. Numerical simulations of the aeroelastic response to gust and blast pressure signatures and comparisons with the solution obtained for an airfoil featuring plunging motion alone, are supplied. The concepts of the alleviation factor envelope and of the one- and two-degrees-of-freedom rigid/elastic-lifting surfaces, considered in conjunction with the aeroelastic response, are investigated and pertinent conclusions are outlined.     

Time-varying span efficiency through the wingbeat of desert locusts

The flight performance of animals depends greatly on the efficacy with which they generate aerodynamic forces. Accordingly, maximum range, load-lifting capacity and peak accelerations during manoeuvres are all constrained by the efficiency of momentum transfer to the wake. Here, we use high-speed particle image velocimetry (1 kHz) to record flow velocities in the near wake of desert locusts (Schistocerca gregaria, Forskål). We use the measured flow fields to calculate time-varying span efficiency throughout the wing stroke cycle. The locusts are found to operate at a maximum span efficiency of 79 per cent, typically at a plateau of about 60 per cent for the majority of the downstroke, but at lower values during the upstroke. Moreover, the calculated span efficiencies are highest when the largest lift forces are being generated (90% of the total lift is generated during the plateau of span efficiency) suggesting that the combination of wing kinematics and morphology in locust flight perform most efficiently when doing the most work.     

Lift improvement of an aerofoil by periodic deformations

The irrotational 2-dimensional motion of an incompressible inviscid fluid at rest at infinity, effected by the displacement and the deformation of an aerofoil, is investigated. Complex potential, lift force and pitching moment acting on the aerofoil are determined, after introducing a Joukowski condition at the cusp of the profile. Then we construct periodic deformations of an aerofoil giving an improvement of the lift force.     

扑翼飞行器测力平台设计与振动特性仿真分析

扑翼飞行器是基于鸟类仿生学理论衍生出的新型无人飞行器,主要通过机翼周期性上下扑动来提供飞行器所需的升力和推力,在军用和民用飞行器领域均有广阔的应用前景。扑翼飞行器气动力测量作为样机气动性测试的重要手段,多维气动力的准确测量可为新型扑翼飞行器设计优化和飞控品质的提高提供试验数据支持。本文介绍了一种新型组合式多维小量程测力平台,可实现扑翼飞行器六维气动力和气动力矩的测量。考虑到扑翼飞行器机翼上下扑动过程动态测力需求,应用Ansys Workbench有限元分析软件对测力平台进行了模态分析和频响分析,获得在工作频率下的频率响应,仿真结果表明测力平台的振动特性满足设计要求。     

Sequentially-coupled space–time FSI analysis of bio-inspired flapping-wing aerodynamics of an MAV

We present a sequentially-coupled space–time (ST) computational fluid–structure interaction (FSI) analysis of flapping-wing aerodynamics of a micro aerial vehicle (MAV). The wing motion and deformation data, whether prescribed fully or partially, is from an actual locust, extracted from high-speed, multi-camera video recordings of the locust in a wind tunnel. The core computational FSI technology is based on the Deforming-Spatial-Domain/Stabilized ST (DSD/SST) formulation. This is supplemented with using NURBS basis functions in temporal representation of the wing and mesh motion, and in remeshing. Here we use the version of the DSD/SST formulation derived in conjunction with the variational multiscale (VMS) method, and this version is called “DSD/SST-VMST.” The structural mechanics computations are based on the Kirchhoff–Love shell model. The sequential-coupling technique is applicable to some classes of FSI problems, especially those with temporally-periodic behavior. We show that it performs well in FSI computations of the flapping-wing aerodynamics we consider here. In addition to the straight-flight case, we analyze cases where the MAV body has rolling, pitching, or rolling and pitching motion. We study how all these influence the lift and thrust.