Study on transition between fretting and reciprocating sliding wear

An experimental investigation was conducted to find the associated changes in characteristics of wear before and after the transition between fretting and reciprocating sliding wear. A set of experiments were carried out using a AISI 52100 steel ball rubbing against a plate specimen made from the same steel under dry condition. Wear coefficient, wear volume, coefficient of friction, profile of the scars and wear debris were analyzed. The results displayed that there were significant differences in wear coefficient, wear volume, profile of the wear scars and wear debris before and after the transition. Wear coefficient and wear volume at a constant sliding distance were found to be the most appropriate for identifying the transition amplitude between fretting and reciprocating sliding wear.     

Effect of sliding velocity on wear rate of fibrous polymer composites

An analytical expression of wear rate as a function of sliding velocity has been derived from the physics of crack propagation and the thermally activated process concept. The derived equation has been found to be useful in explaining the complex behavior of the wear rate vs. sliding velocity data. The measured specific wear rate has been correlated with the observed microstructure.     

Effects of temperature and sliding distance on the wear behavior of austenitic Fe-Cr-C-Si hardfacing alloy

The effects of temperature and sliding distance on the metal-to-metal wear behavior of austenitic Fe-20Cr-1.7C-1Si hardfacing alloy were investigated in air in the temperature range from 25 to 450 °C. The applied contact stress was 55 MPa and the maximum sliding distance was 18 m. In the temperature range from 25 to 200 °C, the weight loss increased linearly with increasing sliding distance. The weight loss increased parabolically with increasing sliding distance up to 18 m at 300 °C, but at 450 °C, the weight loss drastically increased from the beginning of the wear test and became almost saturated above a sliding distance of 3.6 m. The initial friction coefficient was not changed with temperature up to 300 °C. However, at 450 °C, the initial friction coefficient increased abruptly. It was thought to be due to the increasing tendency of adhesive bonding to occur between the two self-mating specimens. At temperatures below 200 °C, the steady state friction coefficient did not change significantly. Above 300 °C, the steady state friction coefficient decreased due to the oxide layers that formed on the worn surfaces during wear.     

Deformation studies at sliding wear tracks in iron

Determinations have been made of strains on the surface and subsurface of specimens of high purity iron after different distances of sliding wear. The method involved the measurement of loss of intensity (contrast) of particular electron channeling lines obtained from small selected areas near the wear track. A calibration specimen, deformed plastically to a range of strain values, was used to relate the channeling line contrast loss to plastic strain. Strain maps lateral to the wear track and below the original surface were obtained after removing controlled thicknesses of iron by electropolishing. In all cases the maximum strain was found at the track center location at the surface and the strains decreased steadily with depth below the track. With a 50 g load the strains vanished at about 40 μm depth. Significant strains were found to exist outside the wear track boundaries. There was no indication of a soft or less-hardened surface layer in any of the specimens studied.     

The characterization of wear transitions in sliding wear process contaminated with silica and iron powder

When a machine is in operation, two moving surfaces interact to generate a large amount of wear particles. The wear debris generated inside the machine or contaminants from outside plays important roles in both two-body and three-body wear. For all mining and port machinery, their lubricants are very likely to be polluted by contaminants such as silica and other metallic debris such as iron and nickel. In order to seek a deeper understanding of the effects of different contaminants on wear process, this project investigated sliding wear processes when silica powder and iron powder exist in lubricants.Four sliding wear tests were conducted on a pin-on-disc tester with and without the contaminants. Visual inspection, ferrography analysis, particle quantity analysis using a particle analyzer, and numerical surface analysis using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) were conducted to study the wear particles and wear surfaces. Supported by the data generated from the comprehensive analyses on the wear particles and wear surfaces, the investigation of the effects of the added contaminants to the wear processes and wear mechanisms have been carried out and presented in this paper.     

The effect of sliding time and speed on the wear of composite materials

The friction and wear properties of an Al 201 alloy and a unidirectionally oriented graphite fiber-aluminum matrix composite (T50-Al 201) were investigated. The experiments were conducted on a pin-on-disc type friction machine. The diameter of the pin was 0.22 cm and the load 4.46 N. The sliding velocity varied between 0.17 and 0.43 m s^?1. The disc counterface was of commercially pure iron. It has been found that the friction coefficient μ and the wear rate W_L of the composite material decrease as the sliding time is increased until a steady state value is reached. The steady state wear rate is proportional to the reciprocal of the sliding speed in accord with a recently proposed model. Scanning electron microscopy and Auger electron spectroscopy observations indicate that the high initial values of μ and W_L are due to a high degree of matrix adhesion to the counterface accompanied by fiber breaking and transfer. The low steady state values of μ and W_L are due to the formation of a film that impedes adhesion and confers some degree of self-lubrication. It is suggested that the observed variation of W_L with sliding speed is related to changes in the degree of subsurface damage as the velocity is varied.     

Studies of high temperature sliding wear of metallic dissimilar interfaces

The evolution of microstructures in the glaze layer formed during limited debris retention sliding wear of Nimonic 80A against Stellite 6 at 750 °C and a sliding speed of 0.314 m s⁻¹ (7 N applied load, 4522 m sliding distance) was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive analysis by X-ray (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The collected data indicate the development of a wear resistant nano-structured glaze layer. The process of ‘fragmentation’ involving deformation, generation of dislocations, formation of sub-grains and their increasing refinement causing increasing misorientation was responsible for the formation of nano-structured grains. The rapid formation of this glaze layer from primarily cobalt–chromium debris transferred from (and also back to) the surface of the Stellite 6, kept wear of both the Nimonic 80A and Stellite 6 to very low levels.However, increasing the sliding speed to 0.905 m s⁻¹ (750 °C) suppressed glaze formation with only a patchy, unstable glaze forming on the Stellite 6 counterface and an absence of glaze development on the Nimonic 80A sample (the Nimonic 80A surface was covered with at most, a very thinly smeared layer of oxide). The high levels of oxide debris generated at 0.905 m s⁻¹ instead acted as a loose abrasive assisting wear of especially the Nimonic 80A. This behaviour was attributed to a change in oxide chemistry (due to the dominance of nickel and chromium oxides generated from the Nimonic 80A) resulting in poor oxide sintering characteristics, in combination with increased mobility and reduced residency of the oxide debris at 0.905 m s⁻¹.     

The transition between high and low wear regimes under multidirectional reciprocating sliding

The wear phenomena and wear characteristics of reciprocating sliding wear with superimposed lateral vibrations were investigated using a ball-on-disc tribometer. The tribometer enabled two orthogonal oscillations, whereas one oscillation had a constant amplitude of 1 mm (primary oscillation) and the other one had a variable amplitude from 0 to 20.2 μm (secondary oscillation). Ball and disc were made of AISI 52100 steel. The ball surface was polished and the disc surface was unidirectionally grinded parallel to the direction of primary oscillation. Two regimes with different wear rates were found, being separated by a characteristic transition amplitude of 2.7 ± 0.4 μm in the secondary oscillation. This transition correlated with a change of wear mechanisms from tribochemically to mechanically dominated wear. A wear model based on surface topography and particle motion was developed. The wear model is able to predict the value of the transition amplitude by means of characteristic topographical data and the size of wear particles.     

A relation between wear volume and sliding time for composite materials

Friction and wear experiments on two graphite fiber-aluminum matrix composites and two commercially pure metals (aluminum and copper) were conducted on a brake-type friction machine. The counterface material was graphitic cast iron. The composite samples were tested with the graphite fibers perpendicular to the counterface; the load varied from 5 to 100 N. The initial sliding velocity varied from 2.0 to 11.4 m s^?1. The wear resistance of the HM-Al 1100 graphite fiber-aluminum matrix composite was found to be more than one order of magnitude better than that of the unreinforced matrix material. With aluminum and copper, the wear volume per braking cycle is proportional to the product of load and sliding distance in accord with both the adhesion and delamination theories of wear. For the two composite materials studied, the wear volume per braking cycle is proportional to the product of load and sliding time which cannot be explained by either of the two wear models. Thus the wear mechanism of composites might be fundamentally different from that of pure metals.     

Tempering temperature effects on abrasive wear of mottled cast iron

The effects of different tempering temperatures (300–600 °C) on abrasive wear resistance of mottled cast iron were studied. Abrasive wear tests were carried out using the rubber-wheel test on quartz sand and the pin test on Al₂O₃ abrasive cloths. The retained austenite content of the matrix was determined by X-ray diffraction. The wear surface of the specimens was examined by scanning electron microscopy for identifying the wear micromechanism. Bulk hardness and matrix hardness before and after the tests were measured. The results showed that in the two-body (pin-on-disc test) system, the main wear mechanism was microcutting and high matrix hardening was presented. The wear rates presented higher correlation with the retained austenite than with the bulk and matrix hardness. In the three-body system (sand–rubber wheel), the wear surfaces presented indentations due to abrasive rolling. The wear rates had better correlation with both the bulk and matrix hardness (before and after the wear test) than with the retained austenite content. There are two groups of results, high and low wear rates corresponding to each tribosystem, two-body abrasive wear and three-body abrasive wear, respectively.     

The tribochemistry of silicon nitride: effects of friction, temperature and sliding velocity

In order to obtain information on the mechanisms of tribochemistry in silicon nitride, we studied the effects of chemical parameters (temperature and concentration of reagent) and tribological parameters (load and sliding speed) on the kinetics of the reaction, i.e. the rate of material removal. The temperature dependence of the wear rate of silicon nitride has been studied in several solutions. In CrO₃ and in KOH, the removal rate increases with temperature; the apparent activation energy is 20 kJ/mole in CrO₃ and 22 kJ/mole in KOH. In water, material removal is temperature independent, in KMnO₄, its rate decreases with increasing temperature. These changes are accompanied by parallel variations in the coefficient of friction. The reaction rate presents a complex dependence on the concentration of CrO₃ solutions. In water and CrO₃ solutions, we observed a strong dependence of friction and material removal rate with the load. With the changes in temperature, concentration and load, it is found that the reaction rate (in mm³/(N·m)) is linear with the coefficient of friction above a threshold value μ_th≈0.2. The velocity dependence is complicated by the phenomena of mixed lubrication. In all cases, the lack of solid wear particles and the production of ammonia have verified the tribochemical nature of the material removal. The mechanism of stimulation of the chemical reaction by friction is a quasi-static stretching of the bonds at the interface and a high local vibration energy of the atoms at the sliding contact.     

Effect of phosphide and matrix microstructures on the dry sliding wear of grey cast iron

The effect of a continuous phosphide network in matrices of pearlite, ferrite, martensite, and tempered martensite has been investigated on the dry wear of a grey iron, sliding at a speed of 1.5 m s⁻¹ with stresses of 0.5 and 2.0 MPa against cast iron. A running-in period was observed with a 0.2% P iron, whereas no running-in was observed with the 1.0% P irons. The presence of a continuous phosphide network reduced the wear rate of the pearlite iron by a factor of 0.25. In the weaker matrices (pearlite, ferrite, and tempered martensite) the phosphide network stiffened the matrix, fractured, and formed a particulate composite of phosphide in the deformed surface which resisted deformation. The wear rates and wear mechanisms of the irons are presented and discussed.     

Plastic deformation of 25CrMo4 steel during wear: Effect of the temperature,the normal force,the sliding velocity and the structural state

This article follows a previous study on friction and wear of 25CrMo4 steel [N. Khanafi-Benghalem, K. Loucif, E. Felder, F. Delamare, Influence de la température sur les mécanismes de frottement et d’usure des aciers X12NiCrMoSi25-20 et 25CrMo4 glissant sur du carbure de tungstène, Matériaux et techniques 93 (2005) 347–362]. The aim of our work is to study in more details the process of plastic deformation and the wear rate of this steel in lubricated sliding against cemented tungsten carbide, process observed in the previous work. The considered parameters are the temperature T (from 20 to 200 °C), the normal force P (from 500 to 1500 N), the steel structure (normalised HV 220 and quenched/tempered HV 480 states) and the sliding velocity v (from 0.05 to 0.3 m/s). We measured the friction coefficient and the sample total volume loss. A displacement sensor follows the volume loss evolution during the test; this follow-up is approximate because of the sample plastic flow which leads to the formation of peripheral burrs. All the tests conditions generate a significant plastic deformation of the sample steel, even in the quenched/tempered state: it produces a marked increase of the surface hardness, the work hardened layer being much finer for the quenched/tempered state (15 μm) than for the normalised state (40 μm at 20 °C). For temperatures T ≤ 100 °C in normalised state, the wear follows the Archard's law with an increasing rate with temperature. For T ≥ 120 °C, the wear rate decreases during the test, the global volume of wear being a decreasing function of T. For the quenched/tempered state, the wear rate decreases with the increase of the normal force, this decrease is less than 30% of the normalised state value. The material heating during the wear tests is well correlated with the friction dissipated power, but remains small, except in extreme cases (v maximum, great friction at high temperatures). These results suggest the existence of two wear mechanisms: abrasion by sample debris and burrs emission by plastic flow. The abrasion is probably the dominating mechanism for the tests carried out at the lowest temperatures. The plastic flow becomes a significant component at the highest temperatures. Using a contact model, we discuss to what extent the influence of the temperature and the strain rate on the steel hardness and ductility could explain the temperature and the sliding velocity effect on wear. Other phenomena are probably present: the influence of the steel microstructure and the lubricant on the size and/or the number of particles responsible for abrasion.     

Sliding wear characteristics of grey cast iron as influenced by sliding speed,load and environment

Abstract

The present investigation pertains to the observations made during sliding of a grey cast iron against a steel counterface over a range of sliding speeds, applied loads and test environments. The nature of the environment was altered through the presence of oil and suspended graphite particles therein. The presence of oil improved the wear characteristics of the samples in terms of lower wear rate and decreased frictional heating in general. An additional presence of suspended graphite particles in the oil lubricant brought about a further improvement in the wear response of the samples in all the test conditions except at the highest speed at high applied loads; the trend reversed in the latter case. Increasing speed and load led to deterioration in the wear behaviour. The behaviour of the material has been explained in terms of specific response of different microconstituents such as pearlite, ferrite and graphite and corroborated with the observed features of wear surfaces, subsurface regions and debris particles.     

Effect of composition and structure of nitrided iron alloys on wear resistance under friction and sliding

Characteristic features of the formation of the wear-resistant structure of the nitrided model alloys with body-centered cubic (bcc) and face-centered cubic (fcc) lattices are studied, including Fe-Mo, Fe-Cr, Fe-Al, Fe-Ni-Cr, Fe-Ni-Al, Fe-Ni-Ti, and Fe-Ni-Cr-Al-Ti. Interrelations are established between the parameters of the structure of the nitrided layer and the wear resistance of alloys. It is shown that, in alloys with the bcc lattice, maximum wear resistance is achieved by the formation of incoherent particles of nitrides of alloying elements, and the maximum hardness can be found in the alloy with coherent nitrides. In alloys with the fcc lattice, maximum hardening during nitriding and wear resistance are achieved at the stage preceding the rupture of coherent communication of the nitride with the lattice. Interconnections of characteristics of the structure of the nitrided layer and the wear resistance are discussed in the context of the formation of the wear-resistant structural state of alloys.     

Development of a simple ‘temperature versus sliding speed’ wear map for the sliding wear behaviour of dissimilar metallic interfaces

The variation in wear behaviour during limited debris retention sliding wear of Nimonic 80A versus Stellite 6 (counterface) between room temperature and 750 °C, at sliding speeds of 0.314, 0.654 and 0.905 m s⁻¹, was investigated. At 0.314 m s⁻¹, mild oxidational wear was observed at all temperatures, due to transfer and oxidation of Stellite 6-sourced debris to the Nimonic 80A and resultant separation of the Nimonic 80A and Stellite 6 wear surfaces. Between room temperature and 450 °C, this debris mostly remained in the form of loose particles (with only limited compaction), whilst between 510 and 750 °C, the particles were compacted and sintered together to form a wear protective ‘glaze’ layer.At 0.654 and 0.905 m s⁻¹, mild oxidational wear due to transfer and oxidation of Stellite 6-sourced debris was only observed at room temperature and 270 °C (also 390 °C at 0.654 m s⁻¹). At 390 °C (450 °C at 0.654 m s⁻¹) and above, this oxide was completely absent and ‘metal-to-metal’ contact resulted in an intermediate temperature severe wear regime—losses in the form of ejected metallic debris were sourced almost completely from the Nimonic 80A. Oxide debris, this time sourced from the Nimonic 80A sample, did not reappear until 570 °C (630 °C at 0.654 m s⁻¹), however, were insufficient to eliminate completely severe wear until 690 and 750 °C. At both 0.654 and 0.905 m s⁻¹, the oxide now preventing severe wear at 690 and 750 °C tended not to form ‘glaze’ layers on the surface of the Nimonic 80A and instead supported continued high wear by abrasion. This abrasive action was attributed to the poor sintering characteristics of the Nimonic 80A-sourced oxide, in combination with the oxides’ increased mobility and decreased residency.The collected data were used to compose a simple wear map detailing the effects of sliding speed and temperature on the wear of Nimonic 80A slid against Stellite 6, at these speeds and temperatures of between room temperature and 750 °C.     

Residual stresses and sliding wear

The residual stresses that develop during the wear of AISI-SAE 1018 and 4340 steels have been examined. The entire three-dimensional stress tensor was obtained. A normal stress perpendicular to the surface, predicted by theory, has been found, but its magnitude is too small to affect the wear rate. There are also significant shear stresses. The wear process rapidly alters any initial stress distribution produced by heat treatment or peening to such a degree that the wear rate is not affected by these stresses, unless they are initially larger than those that can be produced by the wear parameters.     

Influence of load and speed on wear characteristics of grey cast iron in dry sliding — selection for minimum wear

The wear of grey cast iron in dry sliding conditions has been studied with the aims of (1) finding the influence of working conditions on the wear rate, and (2) determining the region of speed and load where low wear is accomplished. Grey cast iron with flake and nodular graphite was submitted to investigation using a pin-on-disc machine. The results indicate that the flake graphite cast iron is more suitable for applications at speeds greater than 4 m s⁻¹ and lower loads, while nodular cast iron has greater wear resistance at lower speeds in the range of loads investigated - from 50 N cm⁻² to 200 N cm⁻²     

Effects of sliding velocity and normal load on friction and wear characteristics of multi-layered diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating prepared by reactive sputtering

Friction and wear tests were performed to investigate effects of sliding velocity and normal load on tribological characteristics of a multi-layered diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating for machine elements. The DLC coatings which consist of sequentially deposited gradient Cr/CrN, W-doped DLC (a-C:H:W) and DLC (a-C:H) layers were formed on carburized SCM 415 Cr–Mo steel disks using a reactive sputtering system. The tests against AISI 52100 steel balls were performed under various sliding velocities (0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 m/s) and normal loads (6.1, 20.7 and 49.0 N) in ambient air (relative humidity=26±2%, temperature=18±2 °C). Each test was conducted for 20 km sliding distance without lubricating oil. The results show that friction coefficients decrease with the increase in sliding velocity and normal load. Wear rates of both surfaces decrease with the increase in normal load. The increase in sliding velocity leads initially to the increase in wear rates up to the maximum value. Then, they decrease, as the sliding velocity increases above specific value that corresponds to the maximum wear rate. Through surface observation and analysis, it is confirmed that formation of transfer layers and graphitized degree of wear surfaces of DLC coatings mainly affect its tribological characteristics.     

Effects of entraining velocity of lubricant and sliding velocity on friction behavior in stainless steel sheet rolling

A series of experiments was carried out using a rolling-type tribometer to investigate the effects on friction behavior of the entraining velocity of the lubricant at the inlet to the contact zone (V) and sliding velocity during deformation (ΔV). Experiments with stainless steel sheets of two different surface roughnesses showed that the variations in the friction coefficient with entraining velocity V and sliding velocity ΔV are largely dependent on the initial surface texture of the workpiece. For a smooth workpiece, the friction coefficient decreases with increasing sliding velocity ΔV but keeps almost constant with increasing entraining velocity V. However, for a rough workpiece, the friction coefficient initially decreases slowly and increases largely with increasing sliding velocity ΔV or decreasing entraining velocity V. Observation of the rolled surface for a smooth workpiece shows that, with increasing entraining velocity V, the slip band becomes more marked, and with increasing sliding velocity ΔV, the rubbed portions become more conspicuous. For a rough workpiece, galling occurs at high sliding velocity ΔV. The critical condition for galling outbreak is shown on the V-ΔV graph. The galling outbreak process is observed by interrupting the rolling process.