Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement.

Early adolescence is often marked by changes in school context, family relationships, and developmental processes. In the context of these changes, academic performance often declines, while at the same time the long-term implications of academic performance increase. In promoting achievement across elementary and secondary school levels, the significant role of families, family–school relations, and parental involvement in education has been highlighted. Although there is a growing body of literature focusing on parental involvement in education during middle school, this research has not been systematically examined to determine which types of involvement have the strongest relation with achievement. The authors conducted a meta-analysis on the existing research on parental involvement in middle school to determine whether and which types of parental involvement are related to achievement. Across 50 studies, parental involvement was positively associated with achievement, with the exception of parental help with homework. Involvement that reflected academic socialization had the strongest positive association with achievement. Based on the known characteristics of the developmental stage and tasks of adolescence, strategies reflecting academic socialization are most consistent with the developmental stage of early adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The link between parents' perceptions of the school and their responses to school bullying: Variation by child characteristics and the forms of victimization.

A growing number of researchers encourage parents to notify the school when their children are bullied and work collaboratively with the school to resolve the situation. However, there is limited research on factors that are associated with parents' responses to their child's victimization. Using data from an online survey of 773 parents of victimized students enrolled in 93 schools (elementary, middle, and high), the current study employed structural equation modeling to examine the association between parents' perceptions of the school's climate and parents' responses to their child's victimization. The results indicated that the more favorable parents' perceptions of the climate were, the less likely they were to contact their child's school or talk to their child in response to the victimization. The parents' perception of the climate and response choice also varied as a function of the child's age and the form of bullying experienced. These findings suggest that parents' perceptions of the school are associated with their responses to their child's victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental behaviors and adolescents' achievement goals at the beginning of middle school: Emotional problems as potential mediators.

Recent literature on the determinants of academic motivation has shown that parenting and emotions are central elements in understanding students' achievement goals. The authors of this study set out to examine the predictive relationship between parental behaviors during the last year of elementary school and adolescents' achievement goals at the end of their first year of middle school. Manifestations of anxiety and depression in Grade 6 were examined as explanatory mechanisms for this relationship. A total of 498 early adolescents participated in the study. The results of structural equation modeling analyses demonstrated that parental involvement predicted mastery goals, whereas parental control predicted performance goals among these adolescents. This relationship was mediated by the adolescents' symptoms of anxiety. These results underscore the need for educators and clinicians to consider parental behaviors and emotional problems among elementary school students when seeking to understand the behaviors and learning strategies adopted by these students in middle school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inner-city African American parental involvement in elementary schools: Getting beyond urban legends of apathy.

Parental involvement in schools is a national priority for both educators and researchers to promote the successful schooling of contemporary youth. Contemporary parental involvement research has produced some promising findings, but parental involvement efforts with inner-city African Americans are currently limited by problems of research methodology and program foci. Certain research studies do, however, demonstrate that inner-city African American parents have responded positively to parental involvement programs that emphasize themes of empowerment, outreach, and indigenous resources. Based on these three promising themes, the authors propose practical strategies for increasing inner-city African American parental involvement as a means of increasing parental participation and school success among inner-city African American families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in efficacy beliefs in mathematics across the transition to middle school: Examining the effects of perceived teacher and parent goal emphases.

This study examined the effects of change in teacher goal emphases on students' efficacy beliefs in mathematics across the transition to middle school. The sample (N = 929) included primarily White (65%) and Black (27%) students, and approximately one third received free or reduced-fee lunch. Analyses grouped children by cross-classification of teachers (N = 53 elementary and N = 34 middle school teachers). On average, students' efficacy beliefs remained stable and relatively high across the transition. Compared with their elementary school teacher, children reported declines in both perceived teacher mastery and performance goal emphases in middle school. A cross-classified hierarchical linear model was used to estimate the effects of perceived teacher and parent goal emphases during 6th and 7th grades on changes in students' efficacy beliefs. An increase in self-efficacy beliefs from elementary to middle school was predicted by an increase in group-level perceptions of teachers' mastery goal emphasis, even after controlling for parents' goal emphases. These findings underscore the important role that both teachers' and parents' goal emphases play as children develop a sense of efficacy in mathematics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The differential impact of early father and mother involvement on later student achievement.

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the direct and indirect effects of early parenting on later parental school involvement and student achievement. The sample, pulled from the 1st and 2nd waves of the Child Development Supplement data set of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, consisted of 390 children age 2–5 at Time 1 and their families. Fathers' and mothers' participation in 5 dimensions of early parenting behaviors was assessed at Time 1, and later parental school involvement and student achievement were assessed at Time 2. Although early paternal and maternal parenting behaviors were not directly related to later student achievement, differences were revealed in the pattern of relationships between early parenting and later parental school involvement for fathers and mothers. In addition, fathers' later school involvement was found to be negatively related to student achievement, whereas maternal school involvement was found to be positively related to student achievement. These findings provide partial support for the hypothesized differential relationship between fathers' and mothers' early parenting and later student achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does parental involvement influence the academic achievement of Mexican-American eighth graders? Results from the National Education Longitudinal Study.

Examined the influence of parental involvement on the academic achievement of 1,714 8th-grade Mexican-American children. The structural equations model used considers and controls for diversity of family backgrounds and values, parents' English language proficiency and place of birth, students' previous achievement, and home rules. The most salient finding was that parental involvement influenced overall academic achievement, as well as promoting gains in the specific subject areas of reading, mathematics, science, and social studies. The strongest influence on academic achievement was previous achievement. Parents' English proficiency influenced parental involvement; those parents with less proficiency had higher educational aspirations for their children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School nurses' perceptions of parental involvement in school health. Results of a statewide study

The purpose of this study was to determine how school nurses attempt to involve parents of seventh graders in school health programs, identify nurses' perceptions of barriers to parental involvement, and identify related staff development needs. A questionnaire was sent to the school nurse in each school in Indiana that had a seventh grade (n = 447); 279 questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 63%. Most respondents worked in situations without written policies for parental involvement. A minority of school nurses reported receiving input from parents through advisory committees or parent surveys. The most common involvement activities were related to providing parents with information about the school health program. Less than half of the respondents reported offering health education through activities such as parent health education classes, health fairs, health education resource centers, or health newsletters. Lack of time was identified as the major barrier faced by school nurses. Several staff development needs were identified.     

Predictors of parent involvement in children's schooling.

The authors combined a multilevel model of parental context with a multidimensional conceptualization of parent involvement to examine the factors influencing parents' involvement in their children's schooling. Three sets of factors were identified: parent and child characteristics, family context, and teacher behavior and attitudes. A diverse sample of 209 mothers, their 3rd–5th grade children, and 28 teachers participated. Parents, teachers, and children reported on 3 types of involvement: school, cognitive, and personal. Mothers who felt efficacious, who saw their roles as that of teacher, and who viewed their children as less difficult were more involved in cognitive activities. A difficult context, social support, and teacher attitudes and practices were associated with both school and personal involvement, though some of these relations were moderated by gender with contextual factors affecting involvement of mothers of boys and classroom factors affecting those of girls. The importance of a multilevel approach to increasing parent involvement is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental alcohol involvement and adolescent alcohol expectancies predict alcohol involvement in male adolescents.

Current models of adolescent drinking behavior hypothesize that alcohol expectancies mediate the effects of other proximal and distal risk factors. This longitudinal study tested the hypothesis that the effects of parental alcohol involvement on their children's drinking behavior in mid-adolescence are mediated by the children's alcohol expectancies in early adolescence. A sample of 148 initially 9–11 year old boys and their parents from a high-risk population and a contrast group of community families completed measures of drinking behavior and alcohol expectancies over a 6-year interval. We analyzed data from middle childhood (M age = 10.4 years), early adolescence (M age = 13.5 years), and mid-adolescence (M age = 16.5 years). The sample was restricted only to adolescents who had begun to drink by mid-adolescence. Results from zero-inflated Poisson regression analyses showed that 1) maternal drinking during their children's middle childhood predicted number of drinking days in middle adolescence; 2) negative and positive alcohol expectancies in early adolescence predicted odds of any intoxication in middle adolescence; and 3) paternal alcoholism during their children's middle childhood and adolescents' alcohol expectancies in early adolescence predicted frequency of intoxication in middle adolescence. Contrary to predictions, child alcohol expectancies did not mediate the effects of parental alcohol involvement in this high-risk sample. Different aspects of parental alcohol involvement, along with early adolescent alcohol expectancies, independently predicted adolescent drinking behavior in middle adolescence. Alternative pathways for the influence of maternal and paternal alcohol involvement and implications for expectancy models of adolescent drinking behavior were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' gender stereotypes and teachers' beliefs as predictors of children's concept of their mathematical ability in elementary school.

This study analyzed whether data at the elementary school level provide support for the hypothesized biasing effect of parents' gender stereotypes on their impressions of their children's competence in mathematics. Approximately 600 German elementary school students in Grades 3 and 4, their teachers, and their parents responded to questionnaires concerning perceptions of ability in mathematics, gender stereotypes in mathematical talent, and future expectations. Path analyses revealed consistent gender stereotypes held by mothers and fathers that interact with the gender of the child and predict the parents' beliefs about their child's abilities. In turn, parents' beliefs about their child relate to their child's self-perceptions of ability in mathematics. A biasing effect of parents' gender stereotypes on present mathematical achievement was not supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence-based parent involvement interventions with school-aged children.

This paper reviewed 24 studies of parent involvement for school-aged children conducted between 1980 and 2002 and evaluated them according to the criteria developed by the Task Force on Evidence-Based Interventions in School Psychology. The parent involvement component of all studies had parents helping children learn at home, with most targeting a change in academic performance, including reading skills, mathematics skills, spelling, and homework completion. Results yielded a wide range of treatment effectiveness. The strongest evidence for parent involvement was provided for programs that implemented parent tutoring in the home and targeted a single academic problem of the elementary school-aged child, primarily reading and mathematics skills. Despite promising evidence for the effectiveness of parent home tutoring, it was concluded that the evidence base for the effectiveness of parent involvement as an intervention for children's academic problems is inconclusive due to methodological weaknesses in the studies reviewed. Recommendations for future empirical research are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of Parental Involvement and Support as Predictors of College Students' Persistence in a Science Curriculum.

As technological and scientific skills are increasingly needed, finding that science students encounter significant problems in their academic program causes serious concern. The authors examined how perceived parental involvement and support predict college students' persistence in science based on J. P. Connell and J. G. Wellborn's (1991) theoretical model: Perceived parental involvement and support should foster student persistence by promoting students' competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Results suggest that perceived parental autonomy supports predicted scientific persistence partly through students' autonomy. Perceived parental involvement, although unrelated to persistence, was a significant predictor of autonomy and relatedness. Results suggest that perceived parental involvement and support have specific roles in predicting student self-processes and achievement, highlighting the importance of sustaining parents' contribution for college students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Flunking kindergarten after Head Start: An inquiry into the contribution of contextual and individual variables.

The author examined the extent that nonpromotion to 1st grade after kindergarten can be predicted from information about school and family contexts as well as Head Start children's individual characteristics. The sample comprised 261 Head Start children and parents who were participating in a study on the transition to school. Children who lagged behind their peers on academic achievement and social adjustment indicators were more likely to be in the nonpromoted group. Parental school involvement, parental estimates of children's school adjustment, and parental satisfaction with school programs were predictive of risk for nonpromotion. Head Start children were less likely to be retained in public schools that provided educational as well as family services intended to support the transition to public school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An integrative cultural view of achievement motivation: Parental and classroom predictors of children's goal orientations when learning mathematics in Korea.

Our goal was to identify how students' perceptions of their parents shape the kind and degree of motivational goal orientations that they adopt in their mathematics classroom, broadening the application of achievement goal orientation theory and self-determination theory to students in Korea. Two groups of students participated, one from a middle school located in a large metropolitan area and the other from a small city high school. Multisample path analysis of data from both groups revealed that Korean students' different goal orientations were predicted by their perceptions of parental goals and motivating styles and by their perceptions of classroom goal structures, mediated by different types of self-regulated motivations. Particularly interesting was the finding that Korean students' degree of mastery goal adoption was associated mostly with identified regulation, not with intrinsic motivation, and predicted by their perceptions of their parents' motivating styles, both autonomy supportive and controlling, in addition to perceptions of parents' mastery goals. Perceptions of classroom goals were stronger predictors of students' own goals than were perceptions of parents' goals and motivating styles. We offer an integration of self-determination theory and achievement goal theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's mathematics achievement: The role of parents' perceptions and their involvement in homework.

Two studies examined the accuracy of parents' assessment of their children's mathematics performance and how this relates to the time parents spend on children's homework. Fourth, 5th, and 6th graders completed a mathematics test. Their parents then predicted their child's test performance. Parents overestimated their children's mathematics scores (Study 1: 17.13%; Study 2: 14.40%). The time parents spent helping their children with mathematics homework was unrelated to children's mathematics performance, parents' predictions of their children's mathematics performance, and the accuracy of parents' predictions of their children's mathematics performance. Although increasing parents' knowledge of their children's mathematics competency should remediate poor mathematics performance of U.S. children, neither homework nor traditional report cards effectively inform parents regarding their children's mathematics performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is Parents' Work Involvement Responsive to the Quality of Relationships With Adolescent Offspring?

Researchers know relatively little about how family relationships influence work involvement, although individuals are concerned about how family life interferes with or enhances work experiences. This study examined change in parents' work involvement as a function of relationship quality with offspring (mean age = 15 years) with data from 191 families participating in a longitudinal study. Results suggested a compensatory association between parents' feelings of acceptance and warmth toward offspring and work involvement. Less positive acceptance predicted (a) increasing emotional job involvement for mothers with sons and fathers with daughters and (b) increasing work hours for fathers with daughters. Results highlight how parents may compensate for less positive relationships with adolescents and are discussed in terms of research and applied implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family Involvement Questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education.

The study developed and evaluated the Family Involvement Questionnaire (FIQ), a multidimensional scale of family involvement in early childhood education. The FIQ was guided by theory and coconstructed with parents and teachers in preschool, kindergarten, and 1st-grade programs in a large urban school district. Demographic and FIQ data were collected from 641 parents. Factor analyses revealed 3 involvement constructs: school-based involvement, home-school conferencing, and home-based involvement. Multivariate analyses of demographic and program differences in these constructs revealed that parents with education beyond high school were engaged in higher levels of school-based involvement and home-school conferencing than parents with less than high school education. There were higher levels of home-school conferencing and home-based involvement in 2-parent families than in single-parent households. Head Start evidenced the highest levels of school-based involvement activity. However, higher school-based contact was not associated with higher levels of home-school conferencing or home-based involvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of an environmental education program on students' and parents' attitudes, motivation, and behaviours.

Changes in 184 6th grade students' and their parents' environmental knowledge, attitudes, motivation, and behaviors following an environmental education program (EEP) over a school year were investigated. Results indicated that at the end of the school year, children who were part of the EEP group engaged in ecological behaviors less for extrinsic motives than did children who were part of a control group. Parents of children in the EEP group were significantly more dissatisfied with local environmental conditions compared to parents of children in the control group. No other significant differences between groups were observed for other measured child and parental variables. Recommendations are presented to guide future studies evaluating an EEP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigating the antecedents of perceived social support: Parents' views of and behavior toward their children.

College students' perceptions of generalized social support were investigated from a developmental perspective. 262 undergraduates completed questionnaires concerning general and relationship-specific social support. Questionnaires were mailed to students' parents and a sibling. Student reports of past and present parental relationships predicted parents' questionnaire return. Parents' views of students' personal characteristics predicted students' general perceptions of social support. Relationship-specific social support perceived from father but not mother was predicted by that parent's view of the student. Students' self-views and feelings of parental acceptance, variables theoretically associated with general social support, were also predicted by parents' views. Parental views of siblings did not in general predict student variables. Results are discussed in terms of relationship-based family antecedents of social support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)