Alcohol use, driving records, and crash culpability among injured motorcycle drivers

Alcohol use, driving records, crash culpability, and crash conviction rates for 165 injured motorcycle drivers (MTCDs) were studied. Of the 165 MTCDs, 53.3% tested positive for alcohol (BAC+). Culpability determinations (n = 150) revealed that 83% of BAC+ and 46% of BAC- MTCDs caused their crashes (p < 0.001). Driving records (n = 145) revealed the following prevalence of one or more convictions for BAC+ and BAC- MTCDs: impaired driving (29% vs. 7%, p < 0.001); speeding (74% vs. 58%, p < 0.05); and reckless driving (68% vs. 44%, p < 0.002). Of the surviving culpable impaired MCTDs (n = 48), 16.7% received crash-related convictions, 12.5% received alcohol-related convictions. The reasons for the low conviction rates are probably multifactoral.     

Individual difference factors in risky driving: the roles of anger/hostility, conscientiousness, and sensation-seeking

Motor vehicle crashes claim the lives of more Americans than any other cause of injury. One factor long recognized as relevant to predicting dangerous driver behavior is the driver's personality. This study examines the independent and combined roles of three personality traits--sensation-seeking, conscientiousness, and anger/hostility--in predicting risky driving behavior. Seventy-three participants completed personality and driving history questionnaires, and also engaged in a virtual environment (VE) task designed to assess risk-taking driving behavior. Each facet of personality was correlated to risky driving behavior in independent univariate analyses. In multivariate analyses, sensation-seeking emerged as the best predictor of self-reported driving violations. Anger/hostility and the interactive effect of anger/hostility by sensation-seeking also emerged in a multivariate analysis predicting one measure of self-reported driving violations. No personality trait predicted risky driving in the VE in multivariate analyses. Results are discussed with respect to previous work in the field, challenges involved in measuring the constructs of interest, and implications to prevention.     

Social, behavioral and driving characteristics of injured pedestrians: a comparison with other unintentional trauma patients

Pedestrian injuries represent 11% of all motor vehicle related injuries in the USA. This study attempts to define the epidemiology of the pedestrian victim. Patients admitted to a regional adult trauma center were interviewed and evaluated for substance abuse. Pedestrians were compared with the remaining unintentional trauma patients with regard to demographics, socioeconomics, possession of a driver's license, injury prone behaviors, risk taking dispositions, and BAC levels using the Student's t-test and Pearson's chi2 statistic (alpha=0.05). Multivariate logistic regression models were built with pedestrian mechanism as the outcome. When compared to the remaining unintentional trauma population (N=661), pedestrians (N=113) were significantly more likely to be black, not married, unemployed, binge drinkers, alcohol dependent, drug dependent, BAC+, to have a low income, low educational achievement, younger age, and to not have a driver license. Black race, unemployment of 1 year or more, never licensed, lapsed license, revoked license and BAC>200 mg/dl showed statistical significance in the multiple logistic regression. Pedestrians represent a sub-population with a low socioeconomic status and high incidence of substance abuse. Unemployment, not having a driver's license, black race, and a BAC>200 mg/dl were strongly linked to being an injured pedestrian.     

Self-reports of aberrant behaviour on the roads: errors and violations in a sample of Greek drivers

Recent studies have shown that unsafe driver acts can be classified into two distinct categories (i.e.. errors and violations) entailing different measures for reducing road traffic accidents. A survey of over 1,400 drivers in Greece is reported in which a variety of aberrant driving behaviours have been identified. The present study has confirmed the results of earlier studies in the driving populations of Britain. Australia and Sweden that errors and violations are the major determinants in the factor structure of aberrant behaviours. Three types of violations were identified including, highway code-, aggressive- and parking-violations (or situational violations). Mistakes and lapses were two major forms of errors. The factor analysis identified another two classes of behaviour that could not be accounted for very well by the error-violation distinction. One class of behaviours referred to a state of low preparedness and negligence while the other class referred to communication errors and 'social disregard' for the other road users. Each class of behaviour was found to have different demographic correlates. Finally, accident liability was predicted by self-reported tendency to commit highway-code violations, but not by tendency to make errors due to failures of judgement (i.e.. mistakes) or lapses. Aggressive violations were significantly related to involvement in speeding convictions and law-breaking whilst highway-code violations were related to speeding convictions only.     

Assessing driver status: a demonstration experiment on the road

Twenty subjects completed an on-the-road experiment that consisted of two parts on two separate days. One was a one-hour driving test under the influence of alcohol (BAC less than = 0.05%), the second a two-and-a-half-hour driving test under vigilance conditions. Impairment of driving performance was measured in a car-following test as well as in a standard driving test. Changes in relevant physiological parameters, such as ECG and EEG, reflected changes in driver status and predicted driving performance impairment.     

Variations of alcohol impairment in different types, causes and contexts of injuries: results of emergency room studies from 16 countries

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this paper is to document alcohol impairment (based on a blood alcohol content (BAC) of at least 80 mg%) for different types, causes and location contexts of injuries. DESIGN AND SETTING: Data from 45 studies with 11,536 injury patients were merged to determine variations in the percent of alcohol impairment among injury patients. In each study, emergency room (ER) injury patients were given a short interview on the circumstances of their injury and BAC was measured. RESULTS: Injury severity, measured by number of body regions injured was significantly associated with BACs over 80 mg%. The highest percentage of injury type to involve alcohol was head injury/concussion. In terms of causes of injuries, patients with alcohol impairment were significantly more likely to be involved in violence than any other cause (i.e., vehicle, falling, poisoning or burns). Finally, injuries occurring at a bar or restaurant were significantly more likely to involve alcohol impairment than any other setting. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate considerable variation in the circumstances where alcohol is involved in injuries. These results may be useful for the development of prevention initiatives.     

Driving simulator sickness: Impact on driving performance,influence of blood alcohol concentration,and effect of repeated simulator exposures

Simulator sickness is a major obstacle to the use of driving simulators for research, training and driver assessment purposes. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the possible influence of simulator sickness on driving performance measures such as standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP), and the effect of alcohol or repeated simulator exposure on the degree of simulator sickness. Twenty healthy male volunteers underwent three simulated driving trials of 1 h’s duration with a curvy rural road scenario, and rated their degree of simulator sickness after each trial. Subjects drove sober and with blood alcohol concentrations (BAC) of approx. 0.5 g/L and 0.9 g/L in a randomized order. Simulator sickness score (SSS) did not influence the primary outcome measure SDLP. Higher SSS significantly predicted lower average speed and frequency of steering wheel reversals. These effects seemed to be mitigated by alcohol. Higher BAC significantly predicted lower SSS, suggesting that alcohol inebriation alleviates simulator sickness. The negative relation between the number of previous exposures to the simulator and SSS was not statistically significant, but is consistent with habituation to the sickness-inducing effects, as shown in other studies. Overall, the results suggest no influence of simulator sickness on SDLP or several other driving performance measures. However, simulator sickness seems to cause test subjects to drive more carefully, with lower average speed and fewer steering wheel reversals, hampering the interpretation of these outcomes as measures of driving impairment and safety. BAC and repeated simulator exposures may act as confounding variables by influencing the degree of simulator sickness in experimental studies.     

The influence of alcohol, age and number of passengers on the night-time risk of driver fatal injury in New Zealand

Breath alcohol measurements and other data collected at randomly selected roadside sites were combined with data on fatally injured drivers in crashes occurring on the same weekdays and times (Friday and Saturday nights) at locations matched by the size of the nearest town. A logistic model was fitted to these data for the years 1995-2000 to estimate the effects of alcohol, driver's age and the influence of passengers carried on the risk of driver fatal injury in New Zealand. The estimated risks increased steeply with increasing blood alcohol concentration (BAC), closely following an exponential curve at levels below about 200mg/dl (i.e. 0.2%) and increasing less than exponentially thereon. The model fitted to data for drivers under 200mg/dl showed that risks at all BAC levels were statistically significantly higher for drivers aged under 20 (over five times) and for drivers aged 20-29 (three times) than for drivers aged 30 and over. Further, controlling for age and BAC level, driving with a single passenger was associated with approximately half the night-time risk of driver fatal injury relative to driving either solo or with two or more passengers. According to a recent travel survey, the types of passengers carried at the times of night and days of week studied appear to differ significantly from the types of passengers carried generally, which may lead to different passenger effects on driver behaviour. The high relative risk of teenage drivers means that they reach high risk levels commonly regarded as unacceptable in the field of road safety even at their current legal limit of 30mg/dl, particularly when more than one passenger is carried in the car.     

Legal consequences for alcohol-impaired drivers injured in motor vehicle collisions: A systematic review

Background

The treatment of alcohol-impaired drivers injured in a motor vehicle collision (MVC) is a complex public health issue. We conducted a systematic review to describe the legal consequences for alcohol-impaired drivers injured in a MVC and taken to a hospital or trauma center. Methods We searched MEDLINE, Embase, and CINAHL databases from inception until August 2014. We included studies that reported legal consequences including charges or convictions of injured drivers taken to a hospital or trauma center after a MVC with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) exceeding the legal limit.Results Twenty-six studies met inclusion criteria; twenty studies were conducted in the USA, five in Canada, and one in Sweden. All were cohort studies (23 retrospective, 3 prospective) and included 11,409 patients overall. A total of 5,127 drivers had a BAC exceeding the legal limit, with legal consequences reported in 4937 cases. The median overall DUI/DWI conviction rate was 13% (range 0–85%). The median percentage of drivers with a previous conviction on their record for driving under the influence (DUI) or driving while intoxicated (DWI) was 15.5% (range 6–40%). The median percentage of drivers convicted again for DUI/DWI during the study period was 3.5% (range 2–10%). Heterogeneity between study designs, legal jurisdictions, institutional procedures and policies for obtaining a legally admissible BAC measurement precluded a meta-analysis. Conclusions The majority of intoxicated drivers injured in MVCs and seen in the emergency department are never charged or convicted. A substantial proportion of injured intoxicated drivers had more than one conviction for DUI/DWI on their police record.     

Combined effects of alcohol and distraction on driving performance

Although alcohol and distraction are often cited as significant risk factors for traffic crashes, most research has considered them in isolation. It is therefore necessary to consider the interactions between alcohol and distraction impairment sources, especially when examining the relationship between behavior and crash risk. In a driving simulator, the primary goal was to maintain a safe headway to a lead vehicle and the secondary goal was to maintain stable lane position. All participants engaged in distractions that represented different levels of resource competition and half of the participants consumed alcohol (target BAC 0.08 g/dl). Specific comparisons were made between sober driving while distracted and driving intoxicated without distraction. Distraction tasks produced more changes in driving behavior than did alcohol for both longitudinal (primary) and lateral (secondary) driving goals. Alcohol impairment was evident only in relation to lateral driving performance, however there was an amplification of impairment when alcohol and distraction conditions were combined. Distraction resulted in a general level of impairment across all driving goals, whereas participants with alcohol appeared to shed secondary driving goals to “protect” primary driving goals. Drivers’ strategies to cope with alcohol (and distraction) may not be sufficient to offset the increased crash risk.     

The relative impact of work-related stress, life stress and driving environment stress on driving outcomes

Previous research has shown the association between stress and crash involvement. The impact of stress on road safety may also be mediated by behaviours including cognitive lapses, errors, and intentional traffic violations. This study aimed to provide a further understanding of the impact that stress from different sources may have upon driving behaviour and road safety. It is asserted that both stress extraneous to the driving environment and stress directly elicited by driving must be considered part of a dynamic system that may have a negative impact on driving behaviours. Two hundred and forty-seven public sector employees from Queensland, Australia, completed self-report measures examining demographics, subjective work-related stress, daily hassles, and aspects of general mental health. Additionally, the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) and the Driver Stress Inventory (DSI) were administered. All participants drove for work purposes regularly, however the study did not specifically focus on full-time professional drivers. Confirmatory factor analysis of the predictor variables revealed three factors: DSI negative affect; DSI risk taking; and extraneous influences (daily hassles, work-related stress, and general mental health). Moderate intercorrelations were found between each of these factors confirming the ‘spillover’ effect. That is, driver stress is reciprocally related to stress in other domains including work and domestic life. Structural equation modelling (SEM) showed that the DSI negative affect factor influenced both lapses and errors, whereas the DSI risk-taking factor was the strongest influence on violations. The SEMs also confirmed that daily hassles extraneous to the driving environment may influence DBQ lapses and violations independently. Accordingly, interventions may be developed to increase driver awareness of the dangers of excessive emotional responses to both driving events and daily hassles (e.g. driving fast to ‘blow off steam’ after an argument). They may also train more effective strategies for self-regulation of emotion and coping when encountering stressful situations on the road.     

The "genetics" of driving behavior: parents' driving style predicts their children's driving style

It can be hypothesized that children inherit their parents' driving habits both through genetic disposition and model learning. A few studies have shown indeed that parents' and their children's traffic convictions and accidents correlate which, however, may be due to life style and other exposure factors. This study aimed at investigating the relationships between parents' and their children's self-reported driving behavior. The subjects were 174 parent-child pairs who independently completed a questionnaire. Driving behavior-driving style-was evaluated by means of Manchester driver behavior questionnaire (DBQ), while data about driving exposure, life style, accidents, and traffic tickets were also collected. A series of regression models indicated that parents' self-reported driving behavior explains their children's respective self-reported behavior, even when exposure and demographic and life-style factors are controlled.     

Young novice driver subtypes: Relationship to driving violations, errors and lapses

The present study aimed to identify, in a large Italian sample of young, novice drivers, specific subtypes of drivers on the basis of combinations of self-reported personality traits (i.e., driving anger, anxiety, angry hostility, excitement-seeking, altruism, normlessness and driving locus of control) and to evaluate their high-risk driving behaviors not only in terms of traffic rule violations and risk-taking behaviors, but also in terms of driving errors and lapses as measured by the Manchester Driver Behavior Questionnaire. Participants were 1008 high school students between the ages of 18 and 23 years, with valid driver's licenses. On the basis of a cluster analysis of the personality variables, three easily interpretable driver subgroups were identified (risky drivers, worried drivers and careful drivers) that differed on self-reported accident involvement, attitudes toward traffic safety and risk perception, as well as on driving violations, errors, and lapses. The inclusion of internal and external driving locus of control, variables not previously considered in similar cluster studies, provided a relevant contribution to the final cluster solution. Further, the use of the Driving Behavior Questionnaire permitted the differentiation between deliberate deviations from safe driving practices and mistakes due to misjudgments or lapses in attention. This distinction was critical for understanding the behavior of each of the three identified subgroups of drivers, and for planning interventions to promote safe driving.     

An evaluation of the specific deterrent effects of vehicle impoundment on suspended, revoked, and unlicensed drivers in California

There have been a number of studies conducted during the past two decades that convincingly demonstrate that license suspension and revocation are some of the most effective countermeasures currently available for attenuating the traffic safety risk of problem drivers. At the same time, it is also known that most suspended/revoked (S/R) drivers violate their illegal driving status and continue to drive, accruing traffic convictions and becoming involved in crashes. In an attempt to strengthen license actions and to better control S/R and unlicensed drivers, California enacted two laws effective January 1995 which provide for the impoundment and forfeiture of vehicles driven by S/R and unlicensed drivers. The study described in this paper evaluates the impact of vehicle impoundment on the 1-year subsequent driving behavior of S/R and unlicensed drivers who experience this sanction. The results show that drivers with no prior convictions for driving while S/R or unlicensed whose vehicles were impounded have, relative to similar drivers whose vehicles were not impounded: 23.8% fewer driving while suspended/revoked or unlicensed convictions; 18.1% fewer traffic convictions; and 24.7% fewer crashes. The differences between the impound and no-impound groups are even larger when the driving records of repeat offenders (i.e. drivers with prior driving-while-S/R or unlicensed convictions) are examined. Repeat offenders whose vehicles are impounded have 34.2% fewer driving-while-S/R or unlicensed convictions, 22.3% fewer traffic convictions and 37.6% fewer crashes. These findings provide strong support for impounding vehicles driven by S/R and unlicensed drivers.     

Prevalence and characteristics of red light running crashes in the United States

About 40% of motor vehicle crashes occur at intersections. In recent years, the number of crashes at traffic signals has increased considerably. A major cause of such crashes is drivers disregarding traffic signals. Despite concerns about the frequent occurrence of red light violations and the significant crash consequences, relatively little is known about the overall prevalence and characteristics of red light running crashes. The present study examines the prevalence of red light running crashes on a national basis and identifies the characteristics of such crashes and the drivers involved. Cities with especially high rates of fatal red light running crashes are identified. Countermeasures to reduce red light running crashes based on collision patterns and characteristics of drivers involved are discussed. It was estimated that about 260 000 red light running crashes occur annually in the United States, of which approximately 750 result in fatalities. Comparisons were made between red light running drivers and drivers deemed not to have run red lights in these same crashes. As a group, red light runners were more likely than other drivers to be younger than age 30, male, have prior moving violations and convictions for driving while intoxicated, have invalid driver’s licenses, and have consumed alcohol prior to the crash. Comparisons also were made between characteristics of red light runners involved in daytime and nighttime crashes. Nighttime red light runners were more likely than daytime runners to be young, male, and have more deviant characteristics, 53% having high blood alcohol concentrations.     

Alcohol use in relation to driving records among injured bicyclists

To prevent alcohol-related occupational mishaps, employers often conduct background checks on prospective employees for history of driving while intoxicated (DWI) and driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) to screen out candidates with drinking problems. Few studies, however, have examined the pervasive nature of drinking behavior across activity domains. Based on trauma registry data, we constructed a historical cohort of 120 Maryland residents ages 18 years or older who were injured while riding a bicycle between 1990 and 1997. Driving records for the 120 bicyclists for the 3 years between May 6, 1995 and May 5, 1998 were obtained from the state motor vehicle administration and were analyzed in relation to BAC-positive status at the time of injury. Bicyclists with positive BACs at the time of admission to the trauma center were significantly more likely than those with negative BACs to have a record of license suspension/revocation (52% vs 14%, P < 0.01) and to have DWI/DUI convictions (30% vs 3%, P < 0.01). Despite the modest sample size, this study provides compelling evidence of the pervasive nature of risky drinking between bicycling and driving activities.     

Risky driving habits and motor vehicle driver injury

Risky driving is an important cause of motor vehicle injury, but there is a lack of good epidemiological data in this field, particularly data comparing risky driving in younger drivers to those of other age groups. We examined the relationship between risky driving habits, prior traffic convictions and motor vehicle injury using cross-sectional data amongst 21,893 individuals in New Zealand, including 8029 who were aged 16-24 years. Those who reported frequently racing a motor vehicle for excitement or driving at 20 km/h or more over the speed limit, and those who had received traffic convictions over the past 12 months, were between two and four times more likely to have been injured while driving over the same time period. Driving unlicensed was a risk factor for older but not younger drivers, and driving at 20 km/h or more above the speed limits was a stronger risk factor for younger (<25 years) than older drivers. These results confirm the need for interventions targeting risky driving and suggest that different strategies may be required for different high-risk groups.     

The relationship between previous driving record and driver culpability in fatal,multiple-vehicle collisions

In an effort to shed light on the relationship between past driving record and driver culpability in fatal, multiple vehicle collisions, the past driving records of 41 pairs of legally-culpable and legally-innocent male drivers—each pair involved in the same fatal accident—were compared for number of past moving violation convictions. As hypothesized, the legally-culpable drivers had approximately three times the number of past moving violation convictions as had the legally-innocent ones. Further analyses revealed a number of additional relationships, including the greater incidence of fatality and alcohol involvement among the legally-culpable drivers. Marked differences between the two groups in terms of central tendencies and covariance structure of relevant variables suggest that two different populations of drivers are involved.     

Characteristics of belted and unbelted drivers

Drivers who had been observed wearing or not wearing shoulder belts were compared using vehicle registration data, driver records, and telephone interviews. The observations were made on the New York Thruway during a special seat belt publicity and enforcement program, which achieved a 75% overall belt use. The results showed that those drivers who still did not wear a shoulder belt despite New York law and the special Thruway program were more likely to be male, to be driving older vehicles, to have more prior traffic convictions, to have more prior injury crash involvements, and to say they are more likely to take risks than others. Although drivers reported that assessing points against the drivers license for belt law violations could increase belt use, citations for belt use law violations were very rare, and enforcement would probably have to increase before any new penalty could be effective.