Individual differences in perceived riskiness of drinking in pregnancy: antecedents and consequences

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether differences in perceived riskiness of alcohol consumption during pregnancy were related to self-reported alcohol consumption among a community sample of pregnant women. Further, this study examined the impact of prior experiences on risk perceptions, focusing on previous pregnancy experiences and on previous alcohol-related problems. METHOD: The hypothesized relationships among variables were tested simultaneously in a structural equation model. Subjects included 159 pregnant women, all of whom drank regularly before pregnancy recognition, who were recruited from prenatal clinics and through newspaper advertisements. RESULTS: Perceived riskiness of drinking during pregnancy was lower among women who had previously given birth to a healthy child and among women with greater numbers of previous alcohol problems. Prior adverse pregnancy experience did not predict perceived risk. Perceived risk negatively predicted actual alcohol consumption during pregnancy, suggesting that previous healthy pregnancy experiences and alcohol problems increase drinking in pregnancy indirectly, through perceived risk. A direct positive effect from previous alcohol problems to drinking in pregnancy also was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that risk perceptions play a role in drinking behavior among pregnant women and help to illuminate the relationship between parity and alcohol consumption. Interventions designed to reduce drinking among pregnant women, which have generally relied on providing information, may be improved by considering the impact of previous experiences and addressing erroneous beliefs.     

Individual differences in language development: Implications for development and language.

Reviews literature on differences in characteristics of language development. Some children have been found to emphasize single words, simple productive rules for combining words, nouns and noun phrases, and referential functions; others use whole phrases and formulas, pronouns, compressed sentences, and expressive or social functions. The evidence for 2 styles of acquisition and their continuity over time is examined. Explanations in terms of hemispheric functions, cognitive maturation, cognitive style, and environmental context are considered, and an explanation in terms of the interaction of individual and environment in different functional contexts is suggested. Implications for development and the mastery of complex systems are discussed. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Focusing the spotlight: Individual differences in visual attention control.

A time-course analysis of visual attention focusing (attentional constraint) was conducted in groups of participants with high and low working memory spans, a dimension the authors have argued reflects the ability to control attention. In 4 experiments, participants performed the Eriksen flanker paradigm under increasing levels of speed stress. Conditional accuracy functions were derived to measure the time course of attentional constraint. The data showed that accuracy rates rose toward asymptote at different rates, with participants with high working memory spans reaching peak performance before participants with low working memory spans. The authors interpret these data in terms of a rate of attention constraint model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences and autonomic control: Absorption, hypnotic susceptibility, and the unilateral control of skin temperature.

Proposed to (a) replicate earlier findings that human Ss could voluntarily control peripheral skin temperature, (b) test the hypothesis that hypnotic susceptibility and the capacity for absorbed, imaginative attention would enhance autonomic learning and performance, and (c) demonstrate a learning effect, if one exists. A comparison was made with 7 Ss who scored high and 7 Ss who scored low on both a modified version of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and the Tellegen Absorption Scale. Auditory feedback was used to train Ss to produce a difference in skin temperature in one hand relative to the other in a direction specified by the E. Large and reliable performance and learning effects were found, but they were unrelated to hypnotic susceptibility or the capacity for absorbed, imaginative attention. Variables that might account for individual differences in learning and performance are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of children's moral sensibility: Individual differences and emotion understanding.

Developmental changes and individual differences in children's conceptions of transgressions were studied in 46 children in their kindergarten and 1st-grade years; the children had previously been studied with their mothers and siblings as 2- and 3-year-olds. Differences in responses to moral transgressions in kindergarten were related to mothers' control management and to siblings' friendly behavior in the preschool period, early understanding of emotions, and verbal ability. Family variables and emotion understanding were also correlated with responses to moral transgressions in 1st grade. The incidence of children's attribution of happiness or mixed feelings to victimizers did not change between 6 and 7 years. The findings suggest experiences with both mothers and siblings, and differences in how children assess the feelings of others show consistent and comparatively long-term associations with children's responses to moral issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in trajectory of intellectual development over 45 years of adulthood

The hypothesis that individual differences in adult intellectual development reflect variation in life context and personality was examined in 132 World War II (WWII) veterans. Intelligence data from the Canadian Army M Test were available for 3 occasions, WWII, 1984-1986 (Int85), and 1989-1991 (Int90). Performance declined over the 45 years on 5 subtests but improved on the 6th, Vocabulary. Correlations between WWII and Int90 scores showed considerable stability of individual differences in intelligence over 45 years. Younger age predicted less decline over 45 years on all subtests; a more engaged lifestyle predicted less decline on most subtests, and better health and greater introversion predicted less decline on some subtests. Predictors of change since Int85 were similar to those for the whole period. Implications for theories of adult intellectual development are discussed.     

Children who do well in school: Individual differences in perceived competence and autonomy in above-average children.

Self-determination theory and a motivational model of engagement were used to determine the impact of perceived competence and autonomy on engagement and performance in school of 77 3rd and 4th graders identified as above average in ability by scoring above the median on the Stanford Achievement Test. Despite this high ability, children who reported experiencing a lack of competence (those less certain of their abilities) or a lack of autonomy (being externally motivated) reported more negative affect and withdrawal behaviors than did children who perceived themselves as having ability or who perceived themselves to be autonomous. Implications for the achievement and adjustment of children in school are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and cultural differences in perceived locus of control among students in five countries.

Administered the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control (I-E) Scale to more than 1,500 students in Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Sweden, and the US. Scores were categorized by sex and country and analyzed by a #2 * 5 analysis of variance. A Sex main effect (p     

Individual differences and effective schooling.

Summarizes the knowledge base with relevance for researchers and practitioners in their efforts to create school environments that effectively adapt to individual learning needs. Recent developments are traced in terms of their impact on how individual differences in learning are viewed, types of information that are examined and described, and use of this information for instructional decision making. Implications of these developments are addressed in 2 areas: (1) broadening of the research base on individual differences and processes of learning and instruction in classroom settings and (2) improvement of schooling practice, especially the role of the school psychologist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences and the design of educational programs.

Reviews the state of knowledge in 4 categories of individual differences in aptitude for learning—cognitive abilities, achievement motivation, vocational and academic interests, and creativity. Specific topics addressed include the taxonomy of intelligence, need for achievement, evaluation anxiety, and information-processing analyses. Ways are examined in which research on individual differences has led or can lead to improvements in various educational functions, including guidance counseling, student selection and advanced placement, design of adaptive instructional systems and teaching strategies, evaluation of educational practices, and the tracking of national human resources. Education is viewed as an aptitude development program in which adaptations that are responsive to individual differences will help provide both equality and optimal diversity of educational opportunity. (88 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing social approachability: Individual differences, in-group biases, and experimental control.

The willingness of strangers to approach others and engage in social interactions is a fundamental social evaluation. Yet, evidence is lacking on how well these social engagement decisions can be assessed. The authors evaluated the psychometric characteristics of an experimentally based measure of social approachability tendencies. Young adults (N = 130) rated the approachability of 48 emotionally neutral and mildly positive faces. Significant variance in approachability judgements was attributable to differences in the faces and in the participants making the judgements. Face-level approachability ratings were comparable across face gender and face race. Person-level approachability ratings identified reliable individual differences, gender, and race in-group biases, and subtle mere-exposure effect preferences. Thus, this social approachability measure is internally reliable, sensitive to individual differences, and amenable to experimental manipulations. This ability to differentiate individual-, group-, and experimental-level responses is important for furthering the understanding of the primary social decision of when to approach and socially engage others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in social comparison: development of a scale of social comparison orientation

Development and validation of a measure of individual differences in social comparison orientation (the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure [INCOM]) are described. Assuming that the tendency toward social comparison is universal, the scale was constructed so as to be appropriate to and comparable in 2 cultures: American and Dutch. It was then administered to several thousand people in each country. Analyses of these data are presented indicating that the scale has good psychometric properties. In addition, a laboratory study and several field studies are described that demonstrated the INCOM's ability to predict comparison behavior effectively. Possible uses of the scale in basic and applied settings are discussed.     

Individual differences in the biphasic effects of ethanol

Ethanol exerts both stimulant-like and sedative-like subjective and behavioral effects in humans depending on the dose, the time after ingestion and, we will argue, also on the individual taking the drug. This study assessed stimulant-like and sedative-like subjective and behavioral effects of ethanol during the ascending and descending limbs of the blood alcohol curve across a range of doses in nonproblem social drinkers. Forty-nine healthy men and women, 21 to 35 years old, consumed a beverage containing placebo or ethanol (0.2, 0.4, or 0.8 g/kg) on four separate laboratory sessions, in randomized order and under double-blind conditions. Subjective and behavioral responses were assessed before and at regular intervals for 3 hr after ingestion of the beverage. The lowest dose of ethanol (0.2 g/kg) only produced negligible subjective effects compared to placebo. The moderate dose (0.4 g/kg) increased sedative-like effects 90 min after ethanol ingestion but did not increase ratings of stimulant effects at any time. The highest dose (0.8 g/kg) increased ratings of both stimulant- and sedative-like effects during the ascending limb and produced only sedative-like effects during the descending limb. Closer examination of the data revealed that individual differences in response to the highest dose of ethanol accounted for this unexpected pattern of results: about half of the subjects reported stimulant-like effects on the ascending limb and sedative-like effects on the descending limb after 0.8 g/kg ethanol, whereas the other half did not report stimulant-like effects at any time after administration of ethanol. These results challenge the simple assumption that ethanol has biphasic subjective effects across both dose and time, and extend previous findings demonstrating individual differences in response to ethanol.     

Individual differences and cues to deception.

In an extension of previous studies on deception and deception detection, the present study investigated the relations among individual differences, behavioral cues displayed when deceiving and telling the truth, and the perceptions of naive observers. 63 undergraduates were measured on the Self-Monitoring Scale, the Affective Communication Test, the Personality Research Form, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, their acting ability, and their overall appearance. They were then videotaped while deceiving and while telling the truth, and their verbal and nonverbal cues were rated and coded. Their success at creating an honest appearance was assessed by showing edited videotapes of their faces or their bodies to naive judges (176 undergraduates), with and without sound. Behavioral cues validly discriminated truthfulness from deception, but these valid cues were not necessarily used or were incorrectly used by the judges. Comparison of the facial and body conditions suggested explanations for the relative inaccuracy of face-viewing judges. Individual differences were related to the overall display of behavioral cues, to variance in the display of cues from deceptive to truthful conditions, to overall perceptions of truthfulness, and to successful deception. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in dream recall.

Ss who typically fail to remember dreams at home (nonreporters) and Ss who frequently remember dreams (reporters) slept in the laboratory for 4 nights each. Gradual or abrupt awakenings were made at each EEG Stage-I REM (dream) period. Although nonreporters and reporters did not differ in REM-period frequency or EEG patterns during sleep, nonreporters did report dreaming less frequently following REM-period awakenings. Ss showed self-consistency in frequency of dream reporting and in type of failure to report. Some nonreporters typically failed to remember any content; others typically said they were awake and thinking. Comparisons among reporters and sub-groups of nonreporters for eye-movement frequency, arousal threshold, and dreamlike-report content indicate that it may be useful to distinguish different kinds of nonreporters. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in the reactivity of young infants.

Although reports of individual differences in reactivity have recently emerged in the literature, information is still lacking on the ontogeny and stability of this phenomenon over the first months of life. To address this issue, the responses of 40 newborns to PKU screening at 2 days of age were videorecorded. At 2 months, when the infants received their first DPT shot, their behavior in response to the inoculation was also videorecorded. Besides duration of crying, the intensity of fussing and grimacing was determined. Irrespective of birth characteristics, measures of reactivity were related over the first 2 months of extrauterine life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in the perception of women's faces.

It was shown that membership in age or sex categories affects the way in which an individual perceives a woman when presented with her photograph. It is contended that this is a demonstration of the influence of culturally defined roles upon perception. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in emotionality in infancy

In this multimethod investigation of early emotionality, we observed 112 8- to 10-month-olds' responses to standard procedures consisting of multiple brief episodes that elicited joy, fear, anger, and discomfort to aversive stimulation. We obtained parental reports about the infants' temperament and observed their emotional tone during naturalistic interactions with their mothers. Parameters of emotional response to the standard procedures (latency, discrete behaviors, and average and peak intensity across facial, vocal, and bodily channels) cohered strongly within each episode. To a lesser extent and with the exception of anger, they also cohered across episodes targeting the same emotion. The four emotions appeared orthogonal, except for the peak intensity of response, which cohered modestly across the 3 negative emotions. The emotionality measures converged to some extent: responses to the standard procedures and father-reported temperament related meaningfully to the infant's emotional tone in mother-child interactions. As predicted, infants' capacity for focused or effortful attention was modestly associated with better modulated negative emotionality.     

Individual differences in causal uncertainty.

Presents a scale that measures chronic individual differences in people's uncertainty about their ability to understand and detect cause-and-effect relationships in the social world: the Causal Uncertainty Scale (CUS). The results of Study 1 indicated that the scale has good internal and adequate test–retest reliability. Additionally, the results of a factor analysis suggested that the scale appears to be tapping a single construct. Study 2 examined the convergent and discriminant validity of the scale, and Studies 3 and 4 examined the predictive and incremental validity of the scale. The importance of the CUS to work on depressives' social information processing and for basic research and theory on human social judgment processes is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)