Negative producer price differentials in Federal Milk Marketing Orders: Explanations,implications, and policy options

In Federal Milk Marketing Orders (FMMO), which use multiple component pricing schemas, farmers are paid for delivered quantity of butterfat, protein, and other solids, plus a producer price differential (PPD). The PPD captures the difference between the total handler obligations to the pool and the total component value of milk. In 2020, record negative PPD caused widespread frustration among dairy farmers. The primary objective of this research was to provide a comprehensive analysis of factors that affect PPD and to quantify their relative importance. We examined FMMO data from the past 10 yr including prices, utilizations, and tests. By decomposing the PPD, we were able to isolate the drivers of negative values. We found that long-term trends in usage, most importantly declining beverage milk and rising component tests, including both butterfat and protein, have substantially reduced PPD over the past decade. Class I milk pricing reform of 2018 exacerbated negative PPD in 2020, but we found that the PPD would have been negative even without that reform. The greatest contributor to recent negative PPD was the spread between cheese and milk powder prices, caused by shifts in demand due to the COVID-19 pandemic and USDA intervention cheese purchases. A range of policy modifications proposed to address negative PPD was evaluated.     

乳品安全中的牛乳过敏

牛乳过敏是婴幼儿中一种常见的食物过敏,严重危害婴幼儿健康。对牛乳过敏的机理、牛乳中的过敏原成分、牛乳过敏原的检测、加工对牛乳过敏原的影响作了详细的介绍。     

红枣枸杞菠萝复合饮料的加工工艺研究

以红枣为主料,枸杞、菠萝等为辅料,对红枣枸杞菠萝复合饮料的加工工艺进行了研究。结果表明,果胶酶浸提红枣汁的最佳工艺条件为：果胶酶用量0.08％、酶解温度55℃、酶解时间3h、酶解pH4.0;红枣汁的最佳澄清条件是果胶酶添加量0．02％、55℃下澄清1．5h;红枣枸杞饮料的最佳配比为：红枣汁55％、枸杞汁8％、菠萝汁12％、50％蔗糖溶液25％。     

我国奶业市场营销环境的研究——奶业危机的对策

我国奶业市场“三聚氰胺”事律给靖费者和生产者带来了极其严重的伤害,问题根源主要在于营销环境治理不力。指出了“奶业危机”的现状,分析了“奶业危机”的症结所在,提出了应对“奶业危机”的对策。     

Immigration policy, foreign agricultural labor, and exit intentions in the United States dairy industry

United States agriculture is dependent on foreign labor. Current US immigration policies have been alleged to disrupt agricultural labor availability, particularly that of hired foreign labor. A national survey of dairy farmers across herd sizes and regions of the United States was conducted and the results were used to estimate the extent to which hired foreign labor dependency will affect exit intentions in dairy farming. This study found that the expected probability of exit from dairy farming increased as the use of hired foreign labor intensified. But the expected probability of exit also decreased rapidly as herd sizes got larger. Given the immigration policy currently in place, farmers expecting labor shortages in the future are expected to experience greater tendency to exit the industry.     

进一步加快黑龙江省乳品行业发展的建议

本文依据黑龙江省乳品行业发展的总体形势，通过深入分析制约黑龙江省乳业发展的几个主要问题，结合我省几家有影响力的乳品企业的实际情况．提出了加快黑龙江省乳业发展的建议：包括进一步加强奶源基地建设、加速培育乳业“航母”、切实加大对龙头企业的扶持力度、规范乳品市场秩序、加强品牌整合力度。     

Identifying cost-minimizing strategies for guaranteeing target dairy income over feed cost via use of the Livestock Gross Margin dairy insurance program

Milk and feed price volatility are the major source of dairy farm risk. Since August 2008 a new federally reinsured insurance program has been available to many US dairy farmers to help minimize the negative effects of adverse price movements. This insurance program is referred to as Livestock Gross Margin Insurance for Dairy Cattle. Given the flexibility in contract design, the dairy farmer has to make 3 critical decisions when purchasing this insurance: 1) the percentage of monthly milk production to be covered, 3) declared feed equivalents used to produce this milk, and 3) the level of gross margin not covered by insurance (i.e., deductible). The objective of this analysis was to provide an optimal strategy of how a dairy farmer could incorporate this insurance program to help manage the variability in net farm income. In this analysis we assumed that a risk-neutral dairy farmer wants to design an insurance contract such that a target guaranteed income over feed cost is obtained at least cost. We undertook this analysis for a representative Wisconsin dairy farm (herd size: 120 cows) producing 8,873 kg (19,545 lb) of milk/cow per year. Wisconsin statistical data indicates that dairy farms of similar size must require an income over feed cost of at least $110/Mg ($5/cwt) of milk to be profitable during the coverage period. Therefore, using data for the July 2009 insurance contract to insure $110/Mg of milk, the least cost contract was found to have a premium of $1.22/Mg ($0.055/cwt) of milk produced insuring approximately 52% of the production with variable monthly production covered during the period of September 2009 to June 2010. This premium represented 1.10% of the desired IOFC. We compared the above optimal strategy with an alternative nonoptimal strategy, defined as a contract insuring the same proportion of milk as the optimal (52%) but with a constant amount insured across all contract months. The premium was found to be almost twice the level obtained under the cost-minimizing solution representing 1.9% of the insured amount. Our model identifies the lowest cost insurance contract for a desired target guaranteed income over feed cost.     

Phenotypic associations between traits other than production and longevity in New Zealand dairy cattle

A proportional hazards model was used to investigate the phenotypic effect of traits other than production (TOP) on true and functional longevity across purebred and crossbred Holstein-Friesian and Jersey dairy cattle in registered and commercial herds in New Zealand. The hazard function was described as the product of a baseline hazard function and the time-independent effects of age at first calving, heterosis, proportion of breed, period of last calving relative to herdmates, and TOP; a time-dependent effect of herd-year was also included. The influence of TOP on functional longevity was assessed by adjusting true longevity for the time-independent effects of production values as well as the time-dependent effects of deviation of milk, fat, and protein yield within contemporary group. All analyses were stratified by breed, and separate analyses were carried out for registered or commercial herds. All TOP were significantly related to true and functional longevity. Obvious differences existed in the relative influence of individual TOP on longevity in registered or commercial herds. Of the individual TOP describing the physical characteristics of the cow, the udder-related TOP exhibited the largest influence on functional longevity. Farmer opinion explained the largest proportion of variation in true and functional longevity among cows. In commercial herds, the risk of culling in cows with very low farmer opinion was 1.5 to 2.0 times that in cows with average or high farmer opinion.     

膜技术在乳品工业中的应用

针对新兴边缘学科－－膜技术在乳品工业中的应用，从膜技术的基本理论方面同传统工艺相比较，突出表现膜分离技术可简化生产工艺，减少废水污染，提高乳品综合利用率，能耗低和效率高，因而具有显著的经济效益和环保作用，故其发展相当迅速，应用也越来越广泛。同时从理论上阐述了膜技术在乳品除菌，乳的标准化，牛乳的浓缩，乳蛋白浓缩，回收产品，乳蛋白质分级分离，乳清脱盐等方面的应用。     

浅析中国乳业发展的瓶颈

从乳业生产的原料奶供应、市场需求、质量控制和生态影响4个方面较为详细地分析了当前制约我国乳业进一步高速发展的瓶颈问题，并提出了相应的政策建议。     

生物荧光技术在乳品工业中的应用

就生物发光法及细菌发光法的检测机理、检测程序及其技术特点进行了综述，并就其研究发展展开了讨论。     

栅栏技术在乳品工业中的应用

介绍了栅栏技术的提出和基本原理,栅栏因子的种类,并就重要栅栏因子(温度、pH值、辐照因子、压力因子、气调技术、包装材料、益生菌等)在乳品工业中的应用进行了探讨。     

低能超声波检测技术在乳制品工业中的应用研究进展

低能超声波检测技术能无损测定多种食品的品质,如肉、鱼和乳制品等。在阐述低能超声波(LIU)检测技术原理的基础上,概括介绍了该检测技术在乳制品(牛奶和奶酪)成分的测定、质构特性(黏度和弹性等)的测定以及异物和添加剂检出等方面的应用研究进展。     

Economic costs of recorded reasons for cow mortality and culling in a pasture-based dairy industry

The objective of this study was to determine the economic costs associated with different reasons for cow culling or on-farm mortality in a pasture-based seasonal system. A bioeconomic model was developed to quantify costs associated with the different farmer-recorded reasons and timing of cow wastage. The model accounted for the parity and stage of lactation at which the cows were removed as well as the consequent effect on the replacement rate and average age structure of the herd. The costs and benefits associated with the change were quantified, including animal replacement cost, cull salvage value, milk production loss, and the profitability of altered genetic merit based on industry genetic trends for each parity. The total cost of cow wastage was estimated to be NZ$23,628/100 cows per year (NZ$1 = US$0.69) in a pasture-based system. Of this total cost, NZ$14,300/100 cows worth of removals were for nonpregnancy and unknown reasons, and another NZ$3,631/100 cows was attributed to low milk production, mastitis, and udder problems. The total cost for cow removals due to farmer-recorded biological reasons (excluding unknown, production, and management-related causes) was estimated to be NZ$13,632/100 cows per year. Of this cost, an estimated NZ$10,286/100 cows was attributed to nonpregnancy, mastitis, udder problems, calving trouble, and injury or accident. There is a strong economic case for the pasture-based dairy industries to invest in genetic, herd health, and production management research focused on reducing animal wastage due to reproductive failure, mastitis, udder problems, injuries or accidents, and calving difficulties.     

新西兰奶业发展概况及环境保护政策

新西兰是世界奶业大国,牛奶产量居世界第8位,产品出口150多个国家,是世界上最大的乳制品出口国,奶业已成为新西兰的重要经济支柱。新西兰奶业发展以天然牧场放牧为基础,充分利用天然草地农业系统,通过机械化生产、专业化管理和规模化经营实现了畜牧业生产现代化,以成本低、质量好、效率高为特点赢得了较强的国际竞争力。新西兰也是一个完备的法制国家,针对奶业规模化发展制定了一系列的法律和政策,为奶业持续健康发展提供了保证。新西兰的成功做法和宝贵经验,对我国奶业的发展有重要的借鉴意义。     

Development and application of a processing model for the Irish dairy industry

A processing-sector model was developed that simulates (i) milk collection, (ii) standardization, and (iii) product manufacture. The model estimates the product yield, net milk value, and component values of milk based on milk quantity, composition, product portfolio, and product values. Product specifications of cheese, butter, skim and whole milk powders, liquid milk, and casein are met through milk separation followed by reconstitution in appropriate proportions. Excess cream or skim milk are used in other product manufacture. Volume-related costs, including milk collection, standardization, and processing costs, and product-related costs, including processing costs per tonne, packaging, storage, distribution, and marketing, are quantified. Operating costs, incurred irrespective of milk received and processing activities, are included in the model on a fixed-rate basis. The net milk value is estimated as sale value less total costs. The component values of fat and protein were estimated from net milk value using the marginal rate of technical substitution. Two product portfolio scenarios were examined: scenario 1 was representative of the Irish product mix in 2000, in which 27, 39, 13, and 21% of the milk pool was processed into cheese (€3,291.33/t), butter (€2,766.33/t), whole milk powder (€2,453.33/t), and skim milk powder (€2,017.00/t), respectively, and scenario 2 was representative of the 2008 product mix, in which 43, 30, 14, and 13% was processed into cheese, butter, whole milk powder, and skim milk powder, respectively, and sold at the same market prices. Within both scenarios 3 milk compositions were considered, which were representative of (i) typical Irish Holstein-Friesian, (ii) Jersey, and (iii) the New Zealand strain of Holstein-Friesian, each of which had differing milk constituents. The effect each milk composition had on product yield, processing costs, total revenue, component values of milk, and the net value of milk was examined. The value per liter of milk in scenario 1 was 24.8, 30.8, and 27.4 cents for Irish Holstein-Friesian, Jersey, and New Zealand strain of Holstein-Friesian milk, respectively. In scenario 2 the value per liter of milk was 26.1, 32.6, and 28.9 cents for Irish Holstein-Friesian, Jersey, and New Zealand strain of Holstein-Friesian milk, respectively.     

Membrane cleaning in the dairy industry: a review

Membrane separation processes have become part of the set of basic unit operations for dairy process design and product development. These processes are employed in a variety of separation and concentration duties, but in all cases, the membranes must be cleaned regularly to remove both organic and inorganic material deposited on the surface from the fluid stream being processed. Cleaning is a vital step in maintaining the permeability and selectivity of the membrane and is necessary to return the plant to its original capacity, to minimize risks of bacteriological contamination, and to produce acceptable products. Caustic-, acidic-, and enzyme-based cleaners may be used for membrane cleaning and are usually formulated with additives to best match the specific cleaning duty. Cleaning generates significant volumes of wastewater and reduces membrane life and plant productivity, so each regime must be optimized with respect to concentration, order and duration of cleaning steps, temperature, pressure, and flow rate. This article reviews the key mechanisms governing cleaning performance and suggests directions by which further optimization may be achieved.     

中国乳业结构-行为-绩效分析

乳业经历了半个世纪多的发展,目前发展速度很快,乳品行业的市场结构属于中高度寡占的有效竞争型。这种市场结构下,乳品企业尤其大型乳品企业争夺奶源和市场等行为,影响乳业市场绩效和进一步发展,发挥规模经济和范围经济效应才是乳品企业发展的方向。     

我国乳制品市场需求分析及其营销策略

分析了我国乳制品市场需求的特点及其发展趋势，指出了随着我国居民收入的增加和对乳制品消费观念的转变，使用乳制品的消费者人数逐年增加，乳制品的消费量呈明显上升趋势，奶粉和液态乳的需求结构正发生变化，液态乳的需求量快速上升，液态乳的品种需求呈多样化的趋势。提出了乳制品企业应采取的营销策略，在产品策略上，应为消费者提供多样化的产品，并不断提高产品质量，开发新的产品，塑造品牌形象；在价格策略上，针对不同消费群体，采取大众化和差异化的定价策略；在渠道策略上，采用多种渠道模式并加强渠道的管理；在促销策略上，应加强对消费者的宣传，并运用多种媒体组合进行广告宣传。     

Interactive euthanasia training program for the dairy industry: Implementation and perceived respondent knowledge change

This study described the development of an interactive euthanasia training program and its potential to improve dairy workers' perceived euthanasia decision-making skills and awareness of timely euthanasia by using a survey instrument before and after the program. Training material encompassed euthanasia information over 2 production stages (calves and cows or heifers) and material was delivered on-farm in a case-scenario format (14 cases). During a 3-mo period, 30 different dairy farms were visited and 81 participants were enrolled in this study. Each participant was required to complete a survey pretraining, to complete the case studies from the production stage in which their job responsibility was more closely aligned with (estimated completion time of 1 h), and to complete a survey post-training. Surveys contained 8 statements regarding participants' perceived knowledge of euthanasia practices. The questions were answered on a 5-point scale: (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) agree, or (5) strongly agree. Multivariable mixed-effects logistic regression models were created for each question to investigate the effect of age, sex, dairy experience, farm size, role at the farm, race, previous experience with euthanasia, veterinarian degree, and production stage in the score change, defined by the presence or absence of an increase in the 5-point scale score. Upon completion of the training, respondents were more confident in identifying compromised animals (score change = 0.35), determining when an animal should be euthanized (score change = 0.64), and understanding the importance of timely euthanasia (score change = 0.26). Age and euthanasia experience were significantly associated with the respondents' perceived knowledge; suggesting that younger, less-experienced caretakers on-farm should be prioritized to receive training. The proposed interactive case-based euthanasia training program has proven to be valuable to dairy participants and veterinarians as it provides a means to improve dairy welfare.