Displaced but still Moving Upwards in the Housing Career? Implications of Forced Residential Relocation in the Netherlands

The housing stock is being restructured in many Dutch post-war neighbourhoods. Through demolition and upgrading of social rented housing and the construction of new owner occupied dwellings, the housing stock and the living environment are being improved. This policy has triggered major residential moves in and beyond some neighbourhoods, partly involuntary. Residents whose dwelling is being demolished or heavily upgraded, are usually forced to move elsewhere. Knowledge of the social implications of forced relocation in the Netherlands is limited, especially on experiences and opinions of relocated households. This paper covers research in two recently restructured neighbourhoods. Movers were recruited to share their experiences and opinions in focus groups and interviews. Surprisingly, many movers were able to improve their housing situation, mostly due to their priority rights in the housing market. However, movers who were less able to take advantage of these rights reported a certain degree of degradation. Moreover, it appears that relocation processes must still be improved in order to reduce stress and refine communication with residents.     

Too Good to be True? The Variable and Contingent Benefits of Displacement and Relocation among Low-Income Public Housing Residents

The forced displacement and relocation of low-income residents resulting from public housing redevelopment has attracted a great deal of research attention. Tracking studies of HOPE VI and similar redevelopment efforts in the US have depicted a record of mixed and inconsistent benefits for the families displaced. Detailed case studies of individual families are used to illustrate the variable and contingent nature of the impacts of displacement and relocation away from public housing. The cases presented here provide examples of how the experience of displaced families can change, sometimes dramatically, over time and how this affects their own assessments of the experience. Residents' perception of relocation is strongly influenced by their overall view of neighborhood restructuring, regardless of whether they themselves directly benefit. The findings suggest that qualitative and or ethnographic research into the experiences of displaced public housing residents can be useful in understanding how relocation affects the lives of very low-income households.     

Urban Restructuring and Forced Relocations: Housing Opportunities for Youth? A Case Study in Utrecht,the Netherlands

The existence of deprived urban neighbourhoods leads many governments to adopt policies of urban restructuring aimed at changing the socio-physical structure of these areas. Such policies often take form in the demolition of social rented dwellings and the displacement of residents. Although we know quite a lot about the effects of displacement on adults, little attention has been paid to the effects on youth. This paper provides insight into the effects of urban restructuring on the dwelling and neighbourhood conditions of youth between 12 and 21 in Utrecht (the Netherlands). The situation of forced movers over the last 10 years is compared with a control group of other movers. The findings indicate that many youth who were forced to relocate perceive that they moved to better dwellings. However, the improvements were generally small and more than half moved to low-income neighbourhoods similar to those they had left.     

Relocation: The Impact on Housing Welfare

San Francisco's first redevelopment project in the Western Addition has involved the displacement of some 4,000 households. Most of these had extremely low incomes and, before clearance of the area, paid very low rents for quite poor housing accommodations. A study of the relocation files shows that as a result of the project most of these households now pay considerably more rent for divellings which are apparently of higher average quality. Little overcrowding was in evidence either before or after relocation. Households tended to move to adjacent areas where similar types of dwelling units were available. Some of the adjacent areas will be cleared in subsequent projects, and many of these households will be displaced once more.     

CAN YOU COMPENSATE FOR A LOST HOME? AN ASSESSMENT OF THE 1970 UNIFORM RELOCATION ACT

The study assesses the impact of the 1970 Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act on residents of four urban renewal projects in Richmond, Virginia. It looks at the impact of the act's provisions from the perspective of adequate compensation to those forcefully displaced by urban renewal and as a housing policy in and of itself. The findings suggest that some of the most objectionable elements of relocation, as it was conducted prior to 1970, were eliminated through compensatory provisions of the Act. Maintenance of high homeownership levels, as well as the addition of numerous renters to that status, greater racial and economic integration, and overall improvement of housing conditions were direct results of the 1970 Act. Nevertheless, costs of replacement housing for renters tended to be substantially higher after relocation, with no provisions for the greater income needed to sustain more expensive housing once the grant ran out. Moreover, failure to blend relocation into a balanced housing approach, including both rehabilitation and clearance efforts, undermined the potentially positive effects of an economically fair method of forced displacement.     

Defining and Measuring Displacement: Is Relocation from Restructured Neighbourhoods Always Unwelcome and Disruptive?

Current regeneration policy has been described as ‘state-led gentrification’, with comparisons made with the ‘social disruption’ caused by slum clearance of the 1950s and 1960s. This article takes issue with this approach in relation to the study of the restructuring of social housing areas. The terms ‘forced relocation’ and ‘displacement’ are often too crude to describe what actually happens within processes of restructuring and the effects upon residents. Displacement in particular has important dimensions other than the physical one of moving. Evidence from a recent study of people who have moved out of restructured areas shows that although there is some evidence of physical displacement, there is little evidence of social or psychosocial displacement after relocation. Prior attitudes to moving and aspects of the process of relocation—the degree of choice and distance involved—are important moderators of the outcomes. Issues of time and context are insufficiently taken into consideration in studies and accounts of restructuring, relocation and displacement.     

Neighbourhood Restructuring and Residential Relocation: Towards a Balanced Perspective on Relocation Processes and Outcomes

This introductory paper to this special issue of Housing Studies questions whether various characteristics of the debate and research on gentrification, displacement and restructuring justify a largely negative perspective on the processes and outcomes of ‘forced’ residential relocation. We argue that a proper and fuller consideration of issues around policy, context, process and outcomes enable researchers and commentators to avoid ready characterisations and self-fulfilling investigations of restructuring which serve to present it as a singular (and somewhat suspicious or conspiratorial) phenomenon. For this purpose, we present a broad conceptual framework for restructuring and relocation studies, based on these four themes. Subsequently, we review major issues in restructuring and gentrification discourses, and briefly reflect upon some of the factors underlying the negative loading of the term displacement. We also identify caveats in the evidence base of relocation studies, both in the United States and in Europe. Finally, we introduce the papers in this special issue. The overall aim of this issue is to offer a more open, balanced starting position for analysis of urban restructuring processes and relocation outcomes, particularly in relation to areas of social housing.     

Homophily horizons and ethnic mover flows among homeowners in Scotland

Abstract

This article analyses mover flows in Glasgow and the role of ethnic homophily, the tendency for movers to be drawn to areas with similar ethnicities to their own. We look at how homophily affects the spatial relocation patterns of homeowners in Glasgow from Scottish, Indian, Pakistani and Chinese descent, and focus on the extent to which homophily extends beyond the immediate locality to surrounding neighbourhoods. Our interest is in estimating the “homophily horizon” – how far the gaze of homophily reaches in mover location decisions. Using a simple Schelling-type theoretical model, we argue that homophily horizons are potentially important in shaping the long-term social structure of cities as they may profoundly affect how potent the overall sorting tendencies of the housing market are in driving segregation. In principle, the more distant the homophily horizon, the more quickly the housing market will tend towards segregation, other things being equal. We adopt Folch and Rey’s use of the local centralization index to capture the influence of surrounding neighbourhoods in shaping mover flows and neighbourhood dynamics. Our estimation combines ethnic mover flows derived from surname analysis of house buyers from the house transactions recorded in Registers of Scotland data. Our results show that the presence of the own ethnic group in the local surroundings is important for explaining mover flows, and that homophily is a local phenomenon.     

Rural Migrants’ Residential Mobility: Housing and Locational Outcomes of Forced Moves in China

This paper analyses the residential mobility of China’s rural–urban migrants in light of evidence from Yangzhou, a medium-sized city in Jiangsu province. To evaluate the effects of forced moves induced by demolition-led redevelopment, these outcomes are compared to those of voluntary moves. The evaluation is specifically concerned with dwelling attributes and location characteristics. Dwelling attributes consist of tenure and housing facilities, while commuting distance, distance to the city centre and the length of a child’s trip to school comprise the location characteristics. Logistic regression of data from a 2012–2013 survey shows that a voluntary relocation and the intention to move prior to notification of intended demolition are likely to result in positive outcomes. The migrants’ relocation strategy involves making a trade-off between better dwelling attributes and a better location. When housing improvement is their major concern, they tend to move to peripheral areas. However, it seems that children’s educational opportunities are being factored into the trade-off. In that case, migrants purchase an apartment in a specific school district or at least move closer to it. For the sake of their children, they relegate other motives to second place.     

Housing prices and policy dilemmas: a peculiarly Australian problem?

House price inflation has a long tradition in Australia. By international standards the current housing boom is 'world class'; Australia, along with Britain, heads the OECD league table for house price increases. This article first describes the boom in Australian house prices, distinguishing the differences across geographic and dwelling type sub-markets. The drivers behind these changes are then discussed, ranging from short-term factors like interest rate levels and investor behaviour to longer-term factors like economic growth and demographic change. Institutional influences, notably tax regimes and land-use planning regulations, are also addressed. The article then considers the tendentious but timely question—'is Australia experiencing a speculative housing investment bubble and, if so, will it burst?' The article goes on to consider what the consequences or costs might be, in terms of the broader issues of macroeconomic policy.     

Does Social Capital Affect Residents' Propensity to Move from Restructured Neighbourhoods?

Many Dutch post-war neighbourhoods are subject to intensive urban restructuring. Demolition and new housing construction combined with social and economic programmes should improve the housing stock, liveability and social capital. Currently, it is unknown whether social capital contributes to residential stability and reduces residents' propensity to move. In this paper, social capital levels of stayers, movers and newcomers are studied in two recently restructured neighbourhoods in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Using survey data, social capital is operationalised as benefits of everyday cursory interactions, trust, shared norms and collective action. Logistic regression analysis shows that age, length of residency, employment, income, dwelling satisfaction, dwelling type and perceived neighbourhood quality significantly predict residents' propensity to move. Newcomers are more inclined to move again than stayers and other movers. Social capital is of less importance than suggested by previous research; housing features, satisfaction and neighbourhood perception affect residents' propensity to move much more strongly. The paper concludes with policy implications and suggestions for future research.     

Social networks of rural–urban migrants after residential relocation: evidence from Yangzhou,a medium-sized Chinese city

This paper analyses the effects of residential relocation on China’s rural–urban migrants’ social networks in light of evidence from Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Our study contrasts voluntary moves with forced moves driven by demolition-led redevelopment of urban villages. Based on data from a survey conducted between 2012 and 2013, the regression analysis shows that voluntarily relocated migrants are more likely than forced movers to use phone/computer to contact their former neighbours, and communication technology allows them to maintain the frequency of their contact. Furthermore, when moving to a gated neighbourhood, voluntary movers are more likely than forced movers to participate in public activities, to have more contact with new neighbours and thereby to get more help from the residents’ committee and new neighbours. The results suggest that forced moves have negative effects on migrants’ social networks in the neighbourhood and that the demolition-led redevelopment programmes do not promote the migrants’ integration in the city.     

Exploring the role of the neighbourhood in firm relocation: differences between stayers and movers

Most firm relocations take place across rather short distances, indicating that firms are in general quite place-attached. Still, at the local level, weaker neighbourhoods are characterised by relatively high firm out-migration figures, which may be the result of unfavourable local business conditions. Through a qualitative study of 40 entrepreneurs from weaker neighbourhoods, equally divided between firms that relocated (movers) and firms that did not (stayers), this paper studies to what extent characteristics of the neighbourhood itself influence either past firm relocation decisions or future firm relocation propensity. The results show that the neighbourhood plays only a modest role in firm relocation decisions and propensity, and when neighbourhood characteristics are mentioned as push factors, they are in general outweighed by investments or relocation costs in the decision-making process. Because most firm relocation decisions, both in the past and in the future, are related to aspects of the business property, rather than consequences of other neighbourhood characteristics, maintaining or creating a diverse supply of business properties within a neighbourhood may prevent most potential movers from leaving the neighbourhood much more than neighbourhood liveability improvement measures.     

House building,profits and social efficiency in Sweden and Britain

The paper examines why the housing sector in Britain performs so badly in producing housing. Completion rates are decreasing, dwelling quality is getting worse, while both construction costs and consumer costs are increasing. It does this through discussion of alternative routes to profitability in house building, supported by a comparative analysis of two contrasting cases: Britain and Sweden. In Britain land development gains and speculative extra profits are significant profit sources for house‐builders. Making profits through building itself is neglected; the concomitant is a fragmented labour process, loss of scale economies, low capitalisation, inadequate technical innovation and stagnant labour productivity. In Sweden house‐builders do not have easy access to land development gains or extra profits. Moreover, they are faced by a well organised and well paid labour force. They are pushed onto the road of making profit through increasing labour productivity and through product improvement. The result is controlled construction costs, improving housing quality and the capacity for sustained output.     

Social housing allocation,choice and neighbourhood ethnic mix in England

Driven by a concern about the negative side effects of ethnic concentration neighbourhoods, many European governments aim to create more ethnically and socio-economically mixed neighbourhoods. At the same time, housing policy aims to give tenants more choice in how and where they live. The objectives of these two policies might conflict as offering people choice has the potential to increase self-segregation, especially across ethnic groups. This paper studies the effect of choice-based letting on (self) segregation in housing association stock in England. We analyse whether households who let their property under choice-based letting end up in neighbourhoods with different levels of ethnic concentrations than households who are matched to a dwelling using the traditional allocation system. We focus on how the effect of choice-based letting differs for ethnic minority households and non-ethnic minority households. Using unique data on all lettings made in the housing association sector in England in 2006/2007 and an ordered logit regression model we show that ethnic minority households are more likely to let a property in an ethnic concentration neighbourhood than non-ethnic minority households. Ethnic minorities letting their property under choice-based letting are the most likely to accept a dwelling in an ethnic concentration neighbourhood.     

Understanding the Experiences of Relocatees during Forced Relocation in Chinese Urban Restructuring

Despite the massive forced relocation of residents during urban restructuring in China, there is no systematic overview regarding how residents experience the process and its outcomes. Most studies concerning urban restructuring in China directly equate forced relocation with displacement, which has a negative connotation. This predominantly negative view overlooks the multifaceted effects of forced relocation on relocatees. This paper aims to provide a better understanding of relocatees’ experiences during urban redevelopment in China by establishing a conceptual model in which the time sequence of events and their context are central. It conceptualizes forced relocation as a process with various and changing socio-spatial implications over time, and as a specific type of residential mobility that occurs in the context of urban restructuring. As such, the conceptual model divides the process of forced relocation into a pre-demolition stage, a transitional stage and a post-relocation stage and investigates the social, economic, physical, psychological and behavioural dimensions of the experiences of relocatees as affected by the macro and micro context. The conceptual model is used to structure the analysis of the existing literature about residents’ experiences and to subsequently identify the gaps in the literature that should be addressed in future studies of forced relocation in the Chinese context.     

Dynamics of Housing Mobility in Australian Metropolitan Areas, 2001–2010: A Longitudinal Study

A lack of understanding of the dynamics of housing mobility and its difference across the major cities in Australia can have significant policy ramifications. In particular, a spatial mismatch in the demand and supply of higher density housing will arise if planning for resource allocations continues to be based on urban density targets without a complete understanding of the dynamics of housing mobility patterns. Therefore through the application of a unique 3-fold longitudinal study this paper examines the housing mobility patterns over time by measuring changes in housing characteristics of housing tenure, dwelling type and location using the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA). It was found that the most typical transition to a higher dwelling density in Australia is from a detached house to multi-storeyed units under 3 storeys. Downsizing moves for retirees are most frequent and a decrease in household income is closely related to downsizing. Also notable is the significantly higher level of downsizing moves found in Melbourne when compared to other cities over the past decade.     

内廊跃层式住宅

内廊跃层式住宅是内廊式、跃层式和一梯两户平面式住宅三者扬长避短的产物,它吸取了两种经典房型的特长,又融合了内廊式住宅大进深的优点,在小区规划布置、立面造型及使用功能等各方面体现出一定的优势。     

房型浅析及展望

通过对目前上海市房型市场分析，论述了住宅设计、房型发展的趋势：户型面积趋向实用化，功能分区更为明显，功能配套更趋完善，户型设计更为贴近人性化。并结合实例点评了各种房型。     

住宅生态设计因素探讨

围绕住宅设计的生态化,通过对生态设计诸因素的探讨,较全面地概括了生态住宅的特性,有助于住宅设计中对生态化问题的解决,从而创造出良好的居住环境,提高居住质量。