Affordable housing and planning gain,linkage fees and the rational nexus: Using the land use planning system in England and the USA to deliver housing subsidies

The paper examines how the English planning system is being used to reduce land prices for social housing schemes at a time when government subsidies to social rented housing producers are being cut and compares and contrasts this with practice within the USA. The paper describes the key characteristics of the English planning system, recent trends in English housing policy, the role the planning system plays in meeting overall housing requirements and how it has been adapted to meet specific needs. It explains the new arrangements the government has put into place to lower land prices for social housing and argues that this represents a specific tax on development values to provide subsidies for social housing and that the government has had to significantly modify the land use planning system in order to achieve its housing policy aims. The paper compares these changes with practices in the USA, particularly in relation to the ‘rational nexus’ argument. It finds significant parallels and argues that the use of the planning system to help provide affordable housing through de facto and site specific taxes on land values can be justified and does not need to be restricted to cases where the rational nexus argument applies, but that practice in each country reflects underlying differences in attitudes to development rights, market provision of housing and the role of local governments.     

Towards a participatory loan – supported housing scheme: Helwan New Community, Egypt

Most of the developing countries, including Egypt, face problems of providing affordable housing for low-income strata. The evolution of these problems and their nature differ from one country to another, according to the political, social and economic contexts. This paper represents an attempt to provide an insight into the development of a housing scheme which offers a way of reducing costs without completely losing control of appearance. This case study, of low-income housing projects in Egypt’s Helwan new community, provides an example which serves to present the major common problems in such housing projects. The paper will shed light on the obstacles that were encountered when implementing the project and the recommended actions that should be taken in order to apply this policy. It is argued that the participatory loan-supported housing scheme is a means of creating low income and affordable housing in many developing countries.     

Inclusionary housing policy in England: the impact of the downturn on the delivery of affordable housing through Section 106

Section 106 (S106) of the English 1990 Town and Country Planning Act provides local planning authorities with powers to require developers to contribute towards affordable housing provision. Over the last two decades, the success of S106, which seeks to extract some of the development value created by planning consent, has been predicated on rising land values and market demand, thus enabling developers to agree and fulfill their planning obligations. The purpose of this article is to explore how negotiations between local authorities and developers with regard to meeting S106 have altered during the economic downturn in England. Drawing on recent empirical research, and through the use of case studies, the article highlights the ways in which S106 agreements have been renegotiated at the site level, with the discretionary nature of the planning system allowing compromises to be made. Despite S106 being tied to market activity, with developer contributions being reduced in a downturn, it remains an important policy tool in securing affordable housing and achieving inclusionary housing goals within England to date.     

Dutch Personal Income Tax Reform 2001: An Exceptional Position for Owner-occupied Housing

This paper examines how personal income taxation has changed across countries and whether and how this has affected the taxation of owner-occupied dwellings. It presents a partial analysis as it focuses on imputed rent taxation and the mortgage interest deduction. Furthermore, the paper places housing taxation in a wider context by describing different benchmarks which could be used to assess the taxation of owner-occupied housing in different types of personal income tax. These international and theoretical points-of-departure are used to evaluate the taxation of owner-occupied housing in the Netherlands. The paper concludes that all along political arguments have conquered theoretical premises to the advantage of the owner occupier in comparison to the private landlord. It also concludes that the theoretical base in 2001 has become so weak that owner-occupied housing is in an exceptional position in comparison with other private wealth thus becoming an easy victim for future tax savings.     

土地使用权和经济适用房建设捆绑拍卖的机制设计

目前经济适用房供给问题比较突出,是由于地方政府和开发商出于自身利益的考虑均缺乏积极性。在经济适用房的供给问题上,政府显然起着主导作用,但同时也要充分调动社会的力量,才能尽快有效地解决这个问题。提供了一种供给方式,通过将土地拍卖和经济适用房建设捆绑的机制设计,引导市场力量承担经济适用房建设的任务,兼顾土地收益和经济适用房的供给。通过模型可以看出,政府在促进经济适用房建设和引导开发商参与的问题上要有决心和强硬态度;同时也要充分考虑开发商的利益,吸引开发商参与投标建设。政府还应采取有效措施保证和提高拍卖实现的概率。     

Planning Gains,Providing Homes

Planning gain has long been used in Britain for infrastructure funding and has been increasingly used to secure land and funding from private developers for new affordable homes. This paper examines the theoretical and policy underpinnings of planning gain. It describes the growth in the number of new affordable, including intermediate, homes delivered through planning gain, the variations between planning authorities in the incidence of planning gain and the value of the contributions developers make. In the light of the environment after the credit crunch it considers the extent to which planning gain mechanisms can any longer deliver new affordable homes.     

Planning delay and the responsiveness of English housing supply

There is growing international interest in the impact of regulatory controls on the supply of housing. Most research focuses on the supply impacts of prescribed limits on land use but housing supply may also be affected by the process of planning monitoring and approval but this is hard to measure in detail. The UK has a particularly restrictive planning regime and a detailed and uncertain process of development control linked to it, but does offer the opportunity of detailed site-based investigation of planning delay. This paper presents the findings of empirical research on the time taken to gain planning permission for selected recent major housing projects in southern England. The scale of delay found was far greater than is indicated by average official data measuring the extent to which local authorities meet planning delay targets. Hedonic modelling indicated that there is considerable variation in the time it takes local authorities to process planning applications. Housing association developments are processed more quickly than those of large developers and small sites appear to be particularly time-intensive. These results suggest that delays in development control may be a significant contributory factor to the low responsiveness of UK housing supply to upturns in market activity.     

Lessons for LEED® for Neighborhood Development,Social Equity,and Affordable Housing

Problem, research strategy, and findings: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design® for Neighborhood Development (LEED®ND) is a rating system designed to encourage sustainable development. I explore why and how most LEED®ND projects ultimately fail to meet the equity goals inherent in sustainability. I survey 114 LEED®ND accredited professionals (APs) and conduct 20 interviews with LEED®ND APs to illuminate the role of the rating system in developer decisions to include affordable housing in their projects. I also explore why nonprofit developers see value in seeking LEED®ND certification for their projects. Although a limited sample, it provides insights into how the certification process affects developer decisions. I find that the LEED®ND rating system does a poor job of encouraging developers to provide affordable housing: Only 40% of LEED®ND-certified projects include affordable housing. LEED®ND APs do not feel that the system offers sufficient incentives to overcome the risks and costs of providing affordable housing. Nonprofit developers might pursue LEED®ND to create savings for residents, but may be deterred by the cost of certification. Most respondents feel that the affordable housing credit should be increased and improved to provide adequate incentives to developers.

Takeaway for practice: Planners cannot count on LEED®ND certification to ensure the provision of affordable and mixed housing in sustainable neighborhoods. The LEED®ND system could be improved by weighting the affordable housing credit more heavily; developers could also be incentivized to build a greater mix of housing. The certification costs could be lowered or subsidized for projects with affordable housing and assessed on a per unit basis. Additional credits could be given to projects that significantly reduce utility costs for low-income residents.     

Building regulations are a barrier to affordable housing in Indian cities: the case of Ahmedabad

Cities in developing countries seldom consider the cost increases that regulations impose on development. To build legal housing, developers must meet a high minimum cost threshold established by mandatory standards. Many standards impose costs on building construction, make them less affordable to low-income households, deprive them access to legally built housing, and fuel the formation of slums. This study analyses the impact of relaxing a few mandatory building and site planning regulations on the cost of small two-room homes in Ahmedabad by developing two alternative layouts for the same site, one in accordance with prevalent regulations, and another after modifying a few regulations. It shows that rationalizing regulations can reduce housing cost by 34% and increase supply by as much as 75% without significantly lowering quality or compromising safety. It also shows that for a large portion of poor households, the costs imposed by mandatory standards are not trivial and have a high impact on the affordability of legally built housing. It recommends that if municipal authorities are interested in tackling the rapid growth of slums by expanding the supply of affordable housing, they should critically examine their building regulations and modify them to address the housing needs of their low-income residents.     

How Race and Class Stereotyping Shapes Attitudes Toward Affordable Housing

The development of affordable housing often involves a contentious siting process. Proposed housing developments frequently trigger concern among neighbors and community groups about potential negative impacts on neighborhood quality of life and property values. Advocates, developers, and researchers have long suspected that these concerns stem in part from racial or class prejudice. Yet, to date, empirical evidence supporting these assumptions is lacking. This study seeks to examine roles that perceptions of race and class play in shaping opinions that underlie public opposition to affordable housing. This study applies a public opinion survey to determine the extent to which stereotypes and perceptions of the poor and minorities relate to attitudes toward affordable housing. The results demonstrate that such perceptions are particularly strong determinants of negative attitudes about affordable housing. These findings provide advocates, planners, developers, and researchers with a more accurate portrayal of affordable housing opposition, thereby allowing the response to be shaped in a more appropriate manner.     

租赁型保障房经济激励机制研究

鉴于租赁型保障房建设目前存在的资金缺口以及其他国家保障性住房发展的经验,采用LIHTC 机制运用税收抵免吸引社会资本投资可支付租用住房建设,对解决低收入人群住房问题将发挥重要作用。介绍了LIHTC 机制主体及其运行模式,分析了该机制在经济激励效果、政府负担、有力监管、开发商融资四方面所展现出的优势。提出了创建我国租赁型保障房税收抵免经济激励机制的构想,从宏观经济流动性过剩与地方政府积极性角度分析该机制在我国推行的可能性,同时阐述实施过程中将会遇到的税收抵免分担比例问题。并为构建我国租赁型保障房税收抵免经济激励机制提出了相应的建议。     

Prospects for walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods: insights from U.S. developers

In the U.S. today, there is a significant danger that walkable communities are becoming unaffordable to low and even moderate-income residents. This paper reports on the results of a survey of affordable housing developers that was conducted to provide a better understanding of what kinds of strategies could be used to substantially increase the prevalence of walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods from the point of view of developers. Thirty-four developers from around the U.S. were interviewed by telephone in November and December, 2010. Five themes emerged from the survey: the need for financing and access to capital and subsidy; the need for reform of financial regulation; the need for reform of land use regulation; the need for incentives; and the need for better communication and networking. Responses to the survey underscored the frustrations affordable housing developers are having with development more generally, and how those frustrations are amplified when trying to locate affordable housing in walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods. The paper concludes by suggesting strategies that could be employed to help promote walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods, beyond the obvious need for better access to capital: support for research that focuses on the benefits of mixed-income neighborhoods; documentation and illumination of best practices; and the fostering of communication and partnerships among a diverse set of advocates.     

Planning and affordable housing in Australia,New Zealand and England: common culture; different mechanisms

This paper compares approaches to planning and delivery of affordable housing across England, Australia and New Zealand. While all three nations began with a common starting point—early British town planning legislation—underlying differences in urban regulation, property rights and housing provision soon emerged. However, signs of convergence have lately re-appeared, as all three countries have responded to affordable housing shortages by exploring new strategies to boost supply through the planning system. In the tradition of comparative housing research, this paper examines these strategies in the context of each country’s particular historical, socio-cultural, governance and urban planning frameworks. Our analysis shows how differences in planning systems and approaches to housing assistance can delimit opportunities to secure new affordable homes, particularly in the context of increasing land values. Effective delivery of affordable housing through the planning system depends on consistent and enforceable policy articulation, government commitment, a mature affordable housing sector, and particular market conditions.     

税收政策对保障性住房供给的影响分析

在我国保障性住房有效供给严重不足、政府决心加大保障性住房建设的情况下,对保障性住房供给方式以及税收政策的影响进行了分析与研究。根据住房过滤与梯度消费理论,完善性地构建了保障性住房多层次供给模型。并以这个模型作为税收政策对保障性住房作用的契入点,分析了现有的税收政策对各种保障性住房供给的影响,提出了对保障性住房供给方税收政策改革的合理化建议。     

新时期保障性住房演化的进程与对策研究——以南京市为例

新时期住房发展目标从"住有所居"转为"住有宜居"、城市更新由增量转为存量。本文通过对南京市保障房进行调查研究,从选址建设趋势、住区空间特征和社会保障情况3个方面梳理20年来南京市保障房演化的绩效以及实践过程中存在的问题,并指出政策和市场是影响空间和人群发展的核心因素。进而预测新时期保障房发展将以"精细化"管理和"微更新"为趋势,并从政策调整、规划设计、更新改造及社区营造过程对多方参与主体提出建议。     

香港公屋设计经验对我国保障性住房规划建设的启示

当前,我国保障性住房建设已进入新阶段,如何做好保障性住房的设计必须探索新思路。香港小户型住宅的形成与规划设计基本是围绕着公屋建设展开的,经过半个多世纪的发展目前已经十分成熟。借鉴香港公屋的设计经验,以"集约化设计"为理念,我国保障性住房建设应优化楼面布局,充分利用空间,体现空间高效性与复合型,关注细部设计,体现以人为本。     

Why there? Developers' rationale for building social housing in the urban periphery in Latin America

Inadequate housing has become endemic to Latin American cities for over six decades. All that has changed has been who is going where. In the 1960s, the rural poor who came to the city solved their housing needs by building their own informal settlements on peri-urban lands. Today, the urban poor relocate to peri-urban housing complexes built by the private sector with state subsidies. Why have these new housing units for low-income households been built in peri-urban areas? This paper examines some of the mechanisms behind the location of the urban poor in cities, with a specific focus on the role developers have played in the construction of affordable housing in peri-urban areas of Brazil and, Mexico. The paper explores these mechanisms through interviews with affordable housing developers. We found that economies of scale – and not land prices – explain developers' preference for building in peripheral areas. Initial savings that accrue to developers due to lower land prices in the periphery are offset by the cost of having to build basic onsite infrastructure. Plus, large lots – which are available almost exclusively in urban peripheries – enable developers to achieve significant cost savings because these large lots make it possible for developers to build more than 500 units. In addition, weaker municipal regulations and fewer bidders, both of which are typical for projects in difficult-to-access peripheral locations, make for a shorter and easier approval process for these large housing projects.     

高容积率保障性住房建设规划策略——以上海市保障性住房三林基地项目为例

高容积率保障性住房具有其发展的必然性。上海市保障性住房三林基地项目规划在充分研究其现状的基础上,在不改变规划面积的前提下,以"H.沪尚社区"为规划理念,采取"大社区、小组团"模式,理性配比机动车停车需求,科学适配公共服务设施,如构建"15分钟服务圈"、配套设施"保质"规划、构建居住景观环境、"精细集约"的住宅户型平面设计及"新海派"的住宅立面形态控制等,对高容积率保障性住房建设规划提供了一定的借鉴。     

经济适用住房补贴探讨

对于经济适用房的补贴形式展开探讨,得出明补、人头补贴以及阶段性补贴避免了现实中的许多问题;同等的补贴额下,明补比暗补、人头补贴比砖头补贴、阶段性补贴比一次性补贴,购房者获得的效应要高。建立新的住房补贴模型,并提出完善补贴配套制度的有关建议。