Initial client expectancies in time-limited counseling.

Assessed the effects of (a) whether counseling was time-limited (12 sessions), (b) the interaction of time limits with the chronicity of the client's problem, and (c) the rationale given for time limits (time limits effective/appropriate vs a long waiting list) on the initial expectancies of clients. 80 female college students were asked to place themselves into the role of a client they saw interacting with a counselor on film. Pre- and postfilm written material manipulated the independent variables. Results show that Ss in the chronic (vs acute) problem condition had the most negative expectancies for the counseling relationship and outcome when the counseling was time-limited (vs unlimited). While the rationale for time limits did not affect the primary dependent variables, post hoc analyses of Ss' essay responses indicated that the waiting-list rationale stimulated more negative expectancies than the time-limits-effective/appropriate rationale. Contrary to predictions, time did not affect Ss' expectancies for client activity and responsibility and for counselor activity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial similarity of client and counselor and client satisfaction with counseling.

Client evaluations of a precollege counseling interview were obtained for 13 black and 13 white students counseled by 3 experienced black counselors and 8 experienced white counselors. Black students tended to react more favorably to black and to white counselors than did white students. In general, racial similarity of client and counselor was not an important factor in these counseling interviews. The hypothesis that counselors are differentially effective in counseling students of a different racial background than their own lacks support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A metalanguage analysis of counselor and client verb usage in counseling.

Examined the verb type and noun case role usages of a counselor and client from the 1st, 11th, and 25th interviews in a single counseling case, using the rationale from a computer-assisted language analysis system and a case grammar approach. The analysis indicated that the participants were remarkably similar in the frequency with which they used (a) specific verb types and (b) case roles of particular noun phrases within each interview. Moreover, Ss were similar in their changes to higher or lower frequencies of these units of linguistic structure over the 3 interviews. The counselor and client appear to be "tracking" each other in their use of given verb types as methods for relating named things to each other. In the beginning of the series, the majority of verbs that both participants used identified the client member of the pair as the agent of some action. By the end of the series, a majority of verbs that both participants were using identified the client as the object of some inner state, or as the experiencer of a psychological process of feeling, sensing, or knowing. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived counselor characteristics, client expectations, and client satisfaction with counseling.

Examined (a) the relationship between perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness and client satisfaction; (b) the relationships between specific client expectations on perceived counselor characteristics and client satisfaction; and (c) the effects of actual counselor experience level on perceived counselor characteristics and client satisfaction. The 55 counselors who participated in the study were either beginning or advancing practicum students, doctoral-level interns, or PhD counselors; clients were 72 students who sought help at a university counseling center. Clients completed an Expectations About Counseling (EAC) questionnaire before entering counseling, as well as the Counseling Evaluation Inventory (CEI) and Counselor Rating Form (CRF) after several weeks of counseling. CRF and CEI were correlated, but EAC scores were not strongly related to the CEI or CRF scores. Actual counselor experience level did not differentially affect CEI or CRF scores. Findings are discussed in terms of several variables (e.g., legitimate power, source variables, and client satisfaction) that may differentially affect the influence process over time. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factor analysis of the domain of client expectancies about counseling.

446 college students completed a questionnaire measuring 20 expectancies regarding counseling. After item analysis, the instrument was reduced to 135 items comprising 17 expectancy scales. Scale scores were calculated for each S, and data analyzed using principal-components analysis with varimax rotation. Evidence of 4 expectancy factors was obtained: Personal Commitment, Facilitative Conditions, Counselor Expertise, and Nurturance. To clarify interpretation, scores on the 4 factors were correlated with Ss' responses to 13 items measuring how realistic respondents' expectancies were. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical attractiveness: Interactive effects of counselor and client on counseling processes.

192 college students, selected on the basis of their scores on an attractiveness battery, assumed the role of a client having social skill problems during 3 counseling sessions. Exp I was a factorial design in which the major variables were counselor's physical attractiveness, client's physical attractiveness, and sex of client. Exp II studied the interaction between physical attractiveness of the counselor and client's susceptibility to attractiveness as determinants of outcome. In both experiments, Ss roleplayed a client who interacted with a female counselor. The counselor's physical attractiveness had a major impact on her perceived therapeutic effectiveness and the client's expectancies about future success, irrespective of the client's physical attractiveness or sex. Male clients generally attributed a higher level of skill to the female counselor than did female clients. When the counselor was unattractive, clients who were more susceptible to attractiveness perceived her as less skillful than clients who were less susceptible to attractiveness. Physical attractiveness of the counselor accounted for over 50% of the variance in perceived effectiveness and future expectancy measures in both experiments. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal influence process in real-life counseling: Investigating client perceptions, counselor experience level, and counselor power over time.

Examined the interpersonal influence process within an actual counseling context over an average of 8 sessions. Counselors were either beginning or advanced practicum students or doctoral interns (n?=?27); clients were 31 students who sought counseling at a university center. Before and after counseling Ss completed the Counselor Rating Form, the Expectations about Counseling measure, and the Counselor Perceptions Questionnaire. Results indicate that (a) the actual counselor experience level did not affect client perceptions of the counselor; (b) perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness changed over time, but not in the same direction across counselors; (c) different levels of client need did not affect clients' perceptions of counselor characteristics; and (d) counselors rated as highly attractive indicated they had more therapeutic power over clients than counselors rated as moderately attractive. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor and client sex pairing: The effects of counseling problem and counselor sex role orientation.

291 male and 246 female undergraduates viewed a videotape of a client of the same sex with either a vocational or personal social problem, counseled by either a masculine or feminine male or female counselor. Three times during the videotape, Ss predicted the client's next response by selecting 1 of 4 affective self-reference statements. At the conclusion of the videotapes, Ss rated the counselors using the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (BLRI) and the Counselor Rating Form (CRF). Results indicate significant main effects and interactions of counselor sex and sex role and client sex and presenting problem for the BLRI, the CRF, and S affective self-references. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client aphasia on client evaluation and counselor behavior.

Examined whether differences exist in counselor behaviors toward and evaluation of an aphasic client in comparison to a nonaphasic client and whether such differences are related to counselor training. 40 counseling students were divided into 2 groups of 20, based on level of counselor training. 10 Ss in each group counseled individually with an aphasic-speaking client for 10 min, and the remaining 10 in each group counseled with the same client as a nonaphasic speaker. Counselor behaviors and evaluations of the confederate client were compared. Results demonstrate that irrespective of training, client aphasic speech significantly affected counselor behavior and evaluation of the client. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of client diagnosis--cancer--on counselor decisions.

Numerous authorities have pointed to the fear of cancer among professionals as a stumbling block to service delivery for cancer patients. Yet systematic efforts to study the parameters and ramifications of this impact on health-care delivery personnel are few. In this study, 34 practicing counselors were asked to complete a series of tasks related to counseling and service delivery with the cancer patient. Ss were administered Form O of the Attitude Toward Disabled Persons Scale to assess their attitudes toward individuals with 4 disease-related disabilities (i.e. renal failure, heart disease, cancer, and paraplegia). Results strongly support general conclusions in the literature that counselors are likely to provide less counseling and case services to cancer patients than to patients with other equally devastating disease-related disabilities. A relationship was demonstrated between case service, attitudes toward the cancer patient, and personal fear of cancer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male and female counselor and client perceptions of four levels of counselor touch.

60 male and 60 female counselors (aged 20–63 yrs) and 60 male and 60 female clients (aged 19–65 yrs) from the outpatient mental health clinic of a military hospital each evaluated a videotaped vignette of a counselor–client interaction with 1 of 4 counselor touch conditions depicted: no touch, touch of client's hand, touch of client's shoulder, semi-embrace. Dependent measures were a counselor rating form and a personal attribute inventory. Three-way multivariate analyses of variance (treatment?×?S gender?×?S's client vs counselor status) yielded no significant interactions. However, significance was obtained for the main effects of treatment and S's client vs counselor status. Subsequent analyses revealed that the counselor in the semi-embrace condition was perceived as less trustworthy than those in any of the other conditions. Also, clients perceived the videotaped counselor as more expert, attractive, and trustworthy than did counselors. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cognitive style and counselor–client compatibility on client growth.

Tests of 2 cognitive style dimensions (serialism–holism and field dependence–independence; measured by the Gandlemuller Test and the Group Embedded Figures Test, respectively) were administered to 60 counselor trainees in graduate clinical and counseling psychology programs and 60 volunteer clients drawn from a university-level applied psychology course. 32 counselor–client pairs matched or mismatched on the 2 dimensions were formed. Counselor and client pairs engaged in 2 50-min therapy sessions that focused on client self-enhancement. In independent rating sessions, matching effects for field dependence–independence were obtained in clients' subjective ratings of improvement in self-exploration skills and in clients' and counselors' subjective ratings of the ease of relating with each other. Implications and applications for achieving maximum counselor–client compatibility in a person–environment interaction model are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of a sex-fair counselor and her client.

Investigated the effects of sex-fair counseling on 18 male and 21 female undergraduates' perceptions of (a) a female counselor, (b) a same-sex client, and (c) their own attitudes. The experimental design was a 2?×?2 factorial in which a female or a male client discussed traditional or nontraditional career plans with the counselor. The only significant findings regarding perceptions of the counselor were that women anticipated that they would feel more comfortable with the counselor who facilitated nontraditional career exploration than did men. Women tended to evaluate traditional and nontraditional clients similarly, whereas men evaluated the traditional client more favorably regarding academic achievement. Ss' own attitudes regarding occupational choice did not differ significantly between the 2 types of counseling, although the nontraditional condition did seem to result in greater flexibility among women. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor and client ethnicity and counselor intake judgments.

Used archival research to compare intake judgments made by women counselors about women clients seen for an initial intake interview. Sociopsychological variables, which have been shown to influence counselor judgments, were controlled for in the research design. 41 African-American and 41 White female clients (aged 17–38 yrs), matched on demographic and pretreatment variables, were seen by African-American and White female counselors. Chi-square analysis and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed no significant differences in counselor judgments for the matched client groups. Results support the need to control for sociopsychological variables that may influence counselor judgments when examining potential bias as a function of ethnicity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client affective self-disclosure and counselor experience on counselor verbal behavior and perceptions.

60 untrained, trained, and professional counselors (average age 20 yrs, 26 yrs, and 38 yrs, respectively) responded to an audio presentation of client affective self-disclosures consisting of either high or low intimacy content. Quality and type of response were measured. Ss then completed a reaction form to assess their clinical impressions of the client. No intimacy effects were found. In contrast, consistent differences for experience occurred. Results indicate that untrained Ss made lower quality responses than either trained or professional Ss with no differences between professionals and counselors-in-training. In terms of response type, untrained Ss relied on direct guidance and silence; trained Ss preferred reflection, and professionals utilized silence, open question, and reflection. When silence as an initial response was removed from consideration, the preferred mode of responding for untrained and trained Ss was strengthened. In contrast, professionals utilized 2 responses (reflection and open question) equally. Finally, the counselor reaction data indicated that untrained Ss had less liking for the client as a person and viewed the client as less motivated to change than trained or professional Ss. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor facilitative level on client suggestibility.

Investigated the effects of the level of counselor facilitation on client suggestibility. 48 university students were individually tested for suggestibility in 1 of 3 conditions. In the experimental conditions, Ss interacted with an E rated as either high or low on a scale of empathy and were then administered the Barber Suggestibility Scale. In the control condition, Ss were simply administered the test. Results support the hypothesis that Ss of higher rated Es would demonstrate more suggestibility than Ss of lower rated Es. Results do not support the hypothesis that S interaction with lower rated Es would elicit less suggestibility than a no-interaction control. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race of counselor, client sex, cultural mistrust level, and premature termination from counseling among Black clients.

Administered an inventory designed to assess the extent to which they trusted White people to 135 27–41 yr old Black clients as they visited a community mental health center for the 1st time. Equal numbers of Ss were assigned to a Black and White counselor for an intake interview. Analyses of counselor's race, mistrust level, and Ss' sex in relationship to premature termination of counseling showed that significant percentages of shared variance were found for counselors' race and trust level. It is suggested that Black clients who are distrustful of White people should be seen by a Black counselor, at least initially. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

International and American students' expectancies about counseling.

Investigated whether students from different backgrounds differ in their expectancies about counseling on a university campus. Ss included 40 American, 39 Chinese, 35 African, and 36 Iranian freshmen and seniors who completed a questionnaire measuring college students' expectancies about counseling. Significant differences among the 4 nationality groups were observed on 12 of the 17 expectancy scales. It was found that American Ss expected the counselor to be less directive and protective and expected themselves to be more responsible for improvement. In contrast, the Chinese, Iranian, and African Ss expected to assume a more passive role and expected that the counselor would be a more directive and nurturing authority figure. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)